OpenCores
URL https://opencores.org/ocsvn/zipcpu/zipcpu/trunk

Subversion Repositories zipcpu

[/] [zipcpu/] [trunk/] [doc/] [src/] [spec.tex] - Diff between revs 167 and 199

Go to most recent revision | Show entire file | Details | Blame | View Log

Rev 167 Rev 199
Line 64... Line 64... 
%
 
%
 
%       "No assembly required" -- TI tools all C programming, very GUI based
 
%       "No assembly required" -- TI tools all C programming, very GUI based
 
%       environment, very little optimization by hand ...
 
%       environment, very little optimization by hand ...
 
%
 
%
 
%
 
%
 
% The FPGA's achilles heel: Reconfigurability.  It is very difficult, although
 
% The FPGA's Achille's heel: Reconfigurability.  It is very difficult, although
 
% I'm sure major vendors will tell you not impossible, to reconfigure an FPGA
 
% I'm sure major vendors will tell you not impossible, to reconfigure an FPGA
 
% based upon the need to process time-sensitive data.  If you need one of two
 
% based upon the need to process time-sensitive data.  If you need one of two
 
% algorithms, both which will fit on the FPGA individually but not together,
 
% algorithms, both which will fit on the FPGA individually but not together,
 
% switching between them on the fly is next to impossible, whereas switching
 
% switching between them on the fly is next to impossible, whereas switching
 
% algorithm within a CPU is not difficult at all.  For example, imagine
 
% algorithm within a CPU is not difficult at all.  For example, imagine
Line 85... Line 85... 
% \graphicspath{{../gfx}}
 
% \graphicspath{{../gfx}}
 
\project{Zip CPU}
 
\project{Zip CPU}
 
\title{Specification}
 
\title{Specification}
 
\author{Dan Gisselquist, Ph.D.}
 
\author{Dan Gisselquist, Ph.D.}
 
\email{dgisselq (at) opencores.org}
 
\email{dgisselq (at) opencores.org}
 
\revision{Rev.~0.91}
 
\revision{Rev.~1.0}
 
\definecolor{webred}{rgb}{0.5,0,0}
 
\definecolor{webred}{rgb}{0.5,0,0}
 
\definecolor{webgreen}{rgb}{0,0.4,0}
 
\definecolor{webgreen}{rgb}{0,0.4,0}
 
\hypersetup{
 
\hypersetup{
 
        ps2pdf,
 
        ps2pdf,
 
        pdfpagelabels,
 
        pdfpagelabels,
Line 116... Line 116... 
ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTIBILITY or
 
ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTIBILITY or
 
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU General Public License
 
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU General Public License
 
for more details.
 
for more details.
 
 
 
 
 
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along
 
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along
 
with this program.  If not, see \hbox{<http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>} for a
 
with this program.  If not, see \hbox{$<$http://www.gnu.org/licenses/$>$} for
 
copy.
 
a copy.
 
\end{license}
 
\end{license}
 
\begin{revisionhistory}
 
\begin{revisionhistory}
 
0.9 & 4/20/2016 & Gisselquist & Modified ISA: LDIHI replaced with MPY, MPYU and MPYS replaced with MPYUHI, and MPYSHI respectively.  LOCK instruction now
 
1.0 & 11/4/2016 & Gisselquist & Major rewrite,
 
permits an intermediate ALU operation. \\\hline
 
                        includes compiler info\\\hline
 
0.91& 7/16/2016 & Gisselquist & :escribed three more CC bits\\\hline
 
0.91& 7/16/2016 & Gisselquist & Described three more CC bits\\\hline
 
 
 
0.9 & 4/20/2016 & Gisselquist & Modified ISA: LDIHI replaced with MPY,
 
 
 
        MPYU and MPYS replaced with MPYUHI, and MPYSHI respectively.  LOCK
 
 
 
        instruction now permits an intermediate ALU operation. \\\hline
 
0.8 & 1/28/2016 & Gisselquist & Reduced complexity early branching \\\hline
 
0.8 & 1/28/2016 & Gisselquist & Reduced complexity early branching \\\hline
 
0.7 & 12/22/2015 & Gisselquist & New Instruction Set Architecture \\\hline
 
0.7 & 12/22/2015 & Gisselquist & New Instruction Set Architecture \\\hline
 
0.6 & 11/17/2015 & Gisselquist & Added graphics to illustrate pipeline discussion.\\\hline
 
0.6 & 11/17/2015 & Gisselquist & Added graphics to illustrate pipeline discussion.\\\hline
 
0.5 & 9/29/2015 & Gisselquist & Added pipelined memory access discussion.\\\hline
 
0.5 & 9/29/2015 & Gisselquist & Added pipelined memory access discussion.\\\hline
 
0.4 & 9/19/2015 & Gisselquist & Added DMA controller, improved stall information, and self--assessment info.\\\hline
 
0.4 & 9/19/2015 & Gisselquist & Added DMA controller, improved stall information, and self--assessment info.\\\hline
Line 145... Line 148... 
have better toolsets than the Zip CPU will ever have. OpenRISC is also
 
have better toolsets than the Zip CPU will ever have. OpenRISC is also
 
available, RISC--V may be replacing it. Why build a new processor?
 
available, RISC--V may be replacing it. Why build a new processor?
 
 
 
 
 
The easiest, most obvious answer is the simple one: Because I can.
 
The easiest, most obvious answer is the simple one: Because I can.
 
 
 
 
 
There's more to it, though. There's a lot that I would like to do with a
 
There's more to it though. There's a lot of things that I would like to do with
 
processor, and I want to be able to do it in a vendor independent fashion.
 
a processor, and I want to be able to do them in a vendor independent fashion.
 
First, I would like to be able to place this processor inside an FPGA.  Without
 
First, I would like to be able to place this processor inside an FPGA.  Without
 
paying royalties, ARM is out of the question.  I would then like to be able to
 
paying royalties, ARM is out of the question.  I would then like to be able to
 
generate Verilog code, both for the processor and the system it sits within,
 
generate Verilog code, both for the processor and the system it sits within,
 
that can run equivalently on both Xilinx and Altera chips, and that can be
 
that can run equivalently on both Xilinx, Altera, and Lattice chips, and that
 
easily ported from one manufacturer's chipsets to another. Even more, before
 
can be easily ported from one manufacturer's chipsets to another. Even more,
 
purchasing a chip or a board, I would like to know that my soft core works. I
 
before purchasing a chip or a board, I would like to know that my soft core
 
would like to build a test bench to test components with, and Verilator is my
 
works. I would like to build a test bench to test components with, and
 
chosen test bench. This forces me to use all Verilog, and it prevents me from
 
Verilator is my chosen test bench. This forces me to use all Verilog, and it
 
using any proprietary cores. For this reason, Microblaze and Nios are out of
 
prevents me from using any proprietary cores. For this reason, Microblaze and
 
the question.
 
Nios are out of the question.
 
 
 
 
 
Why not OpenRISC? That's a hard question. The OpenRISC team has done some
 
Why not OpenRISC? Because the ZipCPU has different goals.  OpenRISC is designed
 
wonderful work on an amazing processor, and I'll have to admit that I am
 
to be a full featured CPU.  The ZipCPU was designed to be a simple, resource
 
envious of what they've accomplished. I would like to port binutils to the
 
friendly, CPU.  The result is that it is easy to get a ZipCPU program running
 
Zip CPU, as I would like to port GCC and GDB. They are way ahead of me. The
 
on bare hardware for a special purpose application--such as what FPGAs were
 
OpenRISC processor, however, is complex and hefty at about 4,500 LUTs. It has
 
designed for, but getting a full featured
 
a lot of features of modern CPUs within it that ... well, let's just say it's
 
Linux distribution running on the ZipCPU may just be beyond my grasp.  Further,
 
not the little guy on the block. The Zip CPU is lighter weight, costing only
 
the OpenRISC ISA is very complex, defining over 200~instructions--even though
 
about 2,300 LUTs with no peripherals, and 3,200 LUTs with some very basic
 
it has never been fully implemented.  The ZipCPU on the other hand has only
 
peripherals.
 
a small handful of instructions, and all but the Floating Point instructions
 
 
 
have already been fully implemented.
 
 
 
 
 
My final reason is that I'm building the Zip CPU as a learning experience. The
 
My final reason is that I'm building the Zip CPU as a learning experience. The
 
Zip CPU has allowed me to learn a lot about how CPUs work on a very micro
 
Zip CPU has allowed me to learn a lot about how CPUs work on a very micro
 
level. For the first time, I am beginning to understand many of the Computer
 
level. For the first time, I am beginning to understand many of the Computer
 
Architecture lessons from years ago.
 
Architecture lessons from years ago.
Line 182... Line 186... 
 
 
 
 
\chapter{Introduction}
 
\chapter{Introduction}
 
\pagenumbering{arabic}
 
\pagenumbering{arabic}
 
\setcounter{page}{1}
 
\setcounter{page}{1}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The goal of the ZipCPU was to be a very simple CPU.   You might think of it as
 
The original goal of the Zip CPU was to be a very simple CPU.   You might
 
a poor man's alternative to the OpenRISC architecture.  You might also think of
 
think of it as a poor man's alternative to the OpenRISC architecture.
 
it as an Open Source microcontroller.
 
For this reason, all instructions have been designed to be as simple as
 
For this reason, all instructions have been designed to be as simple as
 
possible, and the base instructions are all designed to be executed in one
 
possible, and the base instructions are all designed to be executed in one
 
instruction cycle per instruction, barring pipeline stalls.  Indeed, even the
 
instruction cycle per instruction, barring pipeline stalls.\footnote{The
 
bus has been simplified to a constant 32-bit width, with no option for more
 
exceptions to this rule are the multiply, divide, and load/store instructions.
 
or less.  This has resulted in the choice to drop push and pop instructions,
 
Once the floating point unit is built, I anticipate these will also be
 
pre-increment and post-decrement addressing modes, and more.
 
exceptions to this rule.}  Indeed, even the bus has been simplified to a
 
 
 
constant 32-bit width, with no option for more or less.  This has resulted in
 
 
 
the choice to drop push and pop instructions, pre-increment and post-decrement
 
 
 
addressing modes, the integrated memory management unit (MMU), and
 
 
 
more.\footnote{A not--so integrated MMU is currently under development.}
 
 
 
 
 
For those who like buzz words, the Zip CPU is:
 
For those who like buzz words, the Zip CPU is:
 
\begin{itemize}
 
\begin{itemize}
 
\item A 32-bit CPU: All registers are 32-bits, addresses are 32-bits,
 
\item A 32-bit CPU: All registers are 32-bits, addresses are 32-bits,
 
                instructions are 32-bits wide, etc.
 
                instructions are 32-bits wide, etc.  Indeed, the ``byte size''
 
 
 
                for this processor, as per the C--language definition of a
 
 
 
                ``byte'' being the smallest addressable unit, is 32--bits.
 
\item A RISC CPU.  There is no microcode for executing instructions.  All
 
\item A RISC CPU.  There is no microcode for executing instructions.  All
 
        instructions are designed to be completed in one clock cycle.
 
        instructions are designed to be completed in one clock cycle.
 
\item A Load/Store architecture.  (Only load and store instructions
 
\item A Load/Store architecture.  (Only load and store instructions
 
                can access memory.)
 
                can access memory.)
 
\item Wishbone compliant.  All peripherals are accessed just like
 
\item Wishbone compliant.  All peripherals are accessed just like
 
                memory across this bus.
 
                memory across this bus.
 
\item A Von-Neumann architecture.  (The instructions and data share a
 
\item A Von-Neumann architecture.  The instructions and data share a
 
                common bus.)
 
                common bus.
 
\item A pipelined architecture, having stages for {\bf Prefetch},
 
\item A pipelined architecture, having stages for {\bf Prefetch},
 
                {\bf Decode}, {\bf Read-Operand}, a
 
        {\bf Decode}, {\bf Read-Operand}, a combined stage containing
 
                combined stage containing the {\bf ALU},
 
        the {\bf ALU}, {\bf Memory}, {\bf Divide}, and {\bf Floating Point}
 
                {\bf Memory}, {\bf Divide}, and {\bf Floating Point}
 
 
 
                units, and then the final {\bf Write-back} stage.
 
                units, and then the final {\bf Write-back} stage.
 
                See Fig.~\ref{fig:cpu}
 
                See Fig.~\ref{fig:cpu}
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\includegraphics[width=3.5in]{../gfx/cpu.eps}
 
\includegraphics[width=3.5in]{../gfx/cpu.eps}
 
\caption{Zip CPU internal pipeline architecture}\label{fig:cpu}
 
\caption{Zip CPU internal pipeline architecture}\label{fig:cpu}
Line 222... Line 231... 
        contact me.}
 
        contact me.}
 
\end{itemize}
 
\end{itemize}
 
 
 
 
 
The Zip CPU also has one very unique feature: the ability to do pipelined loads
 
The Zip CPU also has one very unique feature: the ability to do pipelined loads
 
and stores.  This allows the CPU to access on-chip memory at one access per
 
and stores.  This allows the CPU to access on-chip memory at one access per
 
clock, minus a stall for the initial access.
 
clock, minus any stalls for the initial access.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Characteristics of a SwiC}
 
\section{Characteristics of a SwiC}
 
 
 
 
 
Here, we shall define a soft core internal to an FPGA as a ``System within a
 
This section might also be called {\em the ZipCPU philosophy}.  It discusses
 
Chip,'' or a SwiC.  SwiCs have some very unique properties internal to them
 
the basis for the ZipCPU design decisions, and why a low logic count CPU
 
that have influenced the design of the Zip CPU.  Among these are the bus,
 
is or can be a good thing.
 
memory, and available peripherals.
 
 
 
 
 
Many other FPGA processors have been defined to be good Systems on a Chip, or
 
 
 
SoC's.  The entire goal of such designs, then, is to provide an interface
 
 
 
to the processor and its external environment.  This is not the case with the
 
 
 
ZipCPU.  Instead, we shall define a new concept, that of a soft core internal to
 
 
 
an FPGA, as a ``System within a Chip,'' or a SwiC.  SwiCs have some very
 
 
 
unique properties internal to them that have influenced the design of the
 
 
 
ZipCPU.  Among these are the bus, memory, and available peripherals.
 
 
 
 
 
Most other approaches to soft core CPU's employ a Harvard architecture.
 
Many other approaches to soft core CPU's employ a Harvard architecture.
 
This allows these other CPU's to have two separate bus structures: one for the
 
This allows these other CPU's to have two separate bus structures: one for the
 
program fetch, and the other for the memory.  The Zip CPU is fairly unique in
 
program fetch, and the other for the memory.  Indeed, Xilinx's proprietary
 
its approach because it uses a von Neumann architecture.  This was done for
 
Microblaze processor
 
simplicity.  By using a von Neumann architecture, only one bus needs to be
 
goes so far as to support four busses: two for cacheable memory, and two for
 
implemented within any FPGA.  This helps to minimize real-estate, while
 
peripherals, with each of those split between instructions and data.  The
 
maintaining a high clock speed.  The disadvantage is that it can severely
 
ZipCPU on the other hand is fairly unique in its approach because it uses a
 
degrade the overall instructions per clock count.
 
Von Neumann architecture, requiring only one bus within any FPGA.  This
 
 
 
structure was chosen for its simplicity.  Having only the one bus helps to
 
 
 
minimize real-estate, logic, and the number of wires that need to be passed
 
 
 
back and forth, while maintaining a high clock speed.  The disadvantage is
 
 
 
that both prefetch and memory access units need to contend for time on the
 
 
 
same bus.
 
 
 
 
 
Soft core's within an FPGA have an additional characteristic regarding
 
Soft core's within an FPGA have an additional characteristic regarding
 
memory access: it is slow.  While memory on chip may be accessed at a single
 
memory access: it is slow.  While memory on chip may be accessed at a single
 
cycle per access, small FPGA's often have only a limited amount of memory on
 
cycle per access, small FPGA's often have only a limited amount of memory on
 
chip.  Going off chip, however, is expensive.  Two examples will prove this
 
chip.  Going off chip, however, is expensive.  Two examples will prove this
Line 254... Line 275... 
Either way you look at it, this memory access will be slow and this doesn't
 
Either way you look at it, this memory access will be slow and this doesn't
 
account for any logic delays should the bus implementation logic get
 
account for any logic delays should the bus implementation logic get
 
complicated.
 
complicated.
 
 
 
 
 
As may be noticed from the above discussion about memory speed, a second
 
As may be noticed from the above discussion about memory speed, a second
 
characteristic of memory is that all memory accesses may be pipelined, and
 
characteristic of memory is sequential memory accesses may be optimized for
 
that pipelined memory access is faster than non--pipelined access.  Therefore,
 
minimal delays (pipelined), and that pipelined memory access is faster than
 
a SwiC soft core should support pipelined operations, but it should also
 
non--pipelined access.  Therefore, a SwiC soft core should support pipelined
 
allow a higher priority subsystem to get access to the bus (no starvation).
 
operations, but it should also allow a higher priority subsystem to get access
 
 
 
to the bus (no starvation).
 
 
 
 
 
As a further characteristic of SwiC memory options, on-chip cache's are
 
As a further characteristic of SwiC memory options, on-chip cache's are
 
expensive.  If you want to have a minimum of logic, cache logic may not be
 
expensive.  If you want to have a minimum of logic, cache logic may not be
 
the highest on the priority list.
 
the highest on the priority list.  Any SwiC capable processor must be able
 
 
 
to either be built without caches, or to scale up or down the logic required
 
 
 
by any cache.
 
 
 
 
 
In sum, memory is slow.  While one processor on one FPGA may be able to fill
 
In sum, memory is slow.  While one processor on one FPGA may be able to fill
 
its pipeline, the same processor on another FPGA may struggle to get more than
 
its pipeline, the same processor on another FPGA may struggle to get more than
 
one instruction at a time into the pipeline.  Any SwiC must be able to deal
 
one instruction at a time into the pipeline.  Any SwiC must be able to deal
 
with both cases: fast and slow memories.
 
with both cases: fast and slow memories.
 
 
 
 
 
A final characteristic of SwiC's within FPGA's is the peripherals.
 
A final characteristic of SwiC's within FPGA's is the peripherals.
 
Specifically, FPGA's are highly reconfigurable.  Soft peripherals can easily
 
Specifically, FPGA's are highly reconfigurable.  Soft peripherals can easily
 
be created on chip to support the SwiC if necessary.  As an example, a simple
 
be created on chip to support the SwiC if necessary.  As an example, a simple
 
30-bit peripheral could easily support reversing 30-bit numbers: a read from
 
30-bit peripheral could easily support reversing 30-bit numbers: a read from
 
the peripheral returns it's bit--reversed address.  This is cheap within an
 
the peripheral returns its bit--reversed address.  This is cheap within an
 
FPGA, but expensive in instructions.  Reading from another 16--bit peripheral
 
FPGA, but expensive in instructions.  Reading from another 16--bit peripheral
 
might calculate a sine function, where the 16--bit address internal to the
 
might calculate a sine function, where the 16--bit address internal to the
 
peripheral was the angle of the sine wave.
 
peripheral was the angle of the sine wave.
 
 
 
 
 
Indeed, anything that must be done fast within an FPGA is likely to already
 
Indeed, anything that must be done fast within an FPGA is likely to already
 
be done--elsewhere in the fabric.  This leaves the CPU with the simple role
 
be done--elsewhere in the fabric.  Further, the application designer gets to
 
of solely handling sequential tasks that need a lot of state.
 
choose what tasks are so important they need fabric dedicated to them, and which
 
 
 
ones can be done more slowly in a CPU.  This leaves the CPU with the simple role
 
 
 
of solely handling sequential tasks, and tasks that need a lot of state.
 
 
 
 
 
This means that the SwiC needs to live within a very unique environment,
 
This means that the SwiC needs to live within a very unique environment,
 
separate and different from the traditional SoC.  That isn't to say that a
 
separate and different from the traditional SoC.  That isn't to say that a
 
SwiC cannot be turned into a SoC, just that this SwiC has not been designed
 
SwiC cannot be turned into a SoC, just that this SwiC has not been designed
 
for that purpose.
 
for that purpose.  Indeed, some of the best examples of the ZipCPU are
 
 
 
System on a Chip examples.
 
\section{Lessons Learned}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Now, however, that I've worked on the Zip CPU for a while, it is not nearly
 
 
 
as simple as I originally hoped.  Worse, I've had to adjust to create
 
 
 
capabilities that I was never expecting to need.  These include:
 
 
 
\begin{itemize}
 
 
 
\item {\bf External Debug:} Once placed upon an FPGA, some external means is
 
 
 
        still necessary to debug this CPU.  That means that there needs to be
 
 
 
        an external register that can control the CPU: reset it, halt it, step
 
 
 
        it, and tell whether it is running or not.  My chosen interface
 
 
 
        includes a second register similar to this control register.  This
 
 
 
        second register allows the external controller or debugger to examine
 
 
 
        registers internal to the CPU.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item {\bf Internal Debug:} Being able to run a debugger from within
 
 
 
        a user process requires an ability to step a user process from
 
 
 
        within a debugger.  It also requires a break instruction that can
 
 
 
        be substituted for any other instruction, and substituted back.
 
 
 
        The break is actually difficult: the break instruction cannot be
 
 
 
        allowed to execute.  That way, upon a break, the debugger should
 
 
 
        be able to jump back into the user process to step the instruction
 
 
 
        that would've been at the break point initially, and then to
 
 
 
        replace the break after passing it.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        Incidentally, this break messes with the prefetch cache and the
 
 
 
        pipeline: if you change an instruction partially through the pipeline,
 
 
 
        the whole pipeline needs to be cleansed.  Likewise if you change
 
 
 
        an instruction in memory, you need to make sure the cache is reloaded
 
 
 
        with the new instruction.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item {\bf Prefetch Cache:} My original implementation, {\tt prefetch}, had
 
 
 
        a very simple prefetch stage.  Any time the PC changed the prefetch
 
 
 
        would go and fetch the new instruction.  While this was perhaps this
 
 
 
        simplest approach, it cost roughly five clocks for every instruction.
 
 
 
        This was deemed unacceptable, as I wanted a CPU that could execute
 
 
 
        instructions in one cycle.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        My second implementation, {\tt pipefetch}, attempted to make the most
 
 
 
        use of pipelined memory.  When a new CPU address was issued, it would
 
 
 
        start reading
 
 
 
        memory in a pipelined fashion, and issuing instructions as soon as they
 
 
 
        were ready.  This cache was a sliding window in memory.  This suffered
 
 
 
        from some difficult performance problems, though.  If the CPU was
 
 
 
        alternating between two diverse sections of code, both could never be
 
 
 
        in the cache at the same time--causing lots of cache misses.  Further,
 
 
 
        the extra logic to implement this window cost an extra clock cycle
 
 
 
        in the cache implementation, slowing down branches.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        The Zip CPU now has a third cache implementation, {\tt pfcache}.  This
 
 
 
        new implementation takes only a single cycle per access, but costs a
 
 
 
        full cache line miss on any miss.  While configurable, a full cache
 
 
 
        line miss might mean that the CPU needs to read 256~instructions from
 
 
 
        memory before it can execute the first one of them.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item {\bf Operating System:} In order to support an operating system,
 
 
 
        interrupts and so forth, the CPU needs to support supervisor and
 
 
 
        user modes, as well as a means of switching between them.  For example,
 
 
 
        the user needs a means of executing a system call.  This is the
 
 
 
        purpose of the {\bf `trap'} instruction.  This instruction needs to
 
 
 
        place the CPU into supervisor mode (here equivalent to disabling
 
 
 
        interrupts), as well as handing it a parameter such as identifying
 
 
 
        which O/S function was called.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
My initial approach to building a trap instruction was to create an external
 
 
 
peripheral which, when written to, would generate an interrupt and could
 
 
 
return the last value written to it.  In practice, this approach didn't work
 
 
 
at all: the CPU executed two instructions while waiting for the
 
 
 
trap interrupt to take place.  Since then, I've decided to keep the rest of
 
 
 
the CC register for that purpose so that a write to the CC register, with the
 
 
 
GIE bit cleared, could be used to execute a trap.  This has other problems,
 
 
 
though, primarily in the limitation of the uses of the CC register.  In
 
 
 
particular, the CC register is the best place to put CPU state information and
 
 
 
to ``announce'' special CPU features (floating point, etc).  So the trap
 
 
 
instruction still switches to interrupt mode, but the CC register is not
 
 
 
nearly as useful for telling the supervisor mode processor what trap is being
 
 
 
executed.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Modern timesharing systems also depend upon a {\bf Timer} interrupt
 
 
 
to handle task swapping.  For the Zip CPU, this interrupt is handled
 
 
 
external to the CPU as part of the CPU System, found in {\tt zipsystem.v}.
 
 
 
The timer module itself is found in {\tt ziptimer.v}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item {\bf Bus Errors:} My original implementation had no logic to handle
 
 
 
        what would happen if the CPU attempted to read or write a non-existent
 
 
 
        memory address.  This changed after I needed to troubleshoot a failure
 
 
 
        caused by a subroutine return to a non-existent address.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        My next problem bus problem was caused by a misbehaving peripheral.
 
 
 
        Whenever the CPU attempted to read from or write to this peripheral,
 
 
 
        the peripheral would take control of the wishbone bus and not return
 
 
 
        it.  For example, it might never return an {\tt ACK} to signal
 
 
 
        the end of the bus transaction.  This led to the implementation of
 
 
 
        a wishbone bus watchdog that would create a bus error if any particular
 
 
 
        bus action didn't complete in a timely fashion.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item {\bf Pipeline Stalls:} My original plan was to not support pipeline
 
 
 
        stalls at all, but rather to require the compiler to properly schedule
 
 
 
        all instructions so that stalls would never be necessary.  After trying
 
 
 
        to build such an architecture, I gave up, having learned some things:
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        First, and ideal pipeline might look something like
 
 
 
        Fig.~\ref{fig:ideal-pipeline}.
 
 
 
\begin{figure}
 
 
 
\begin{center}
 
 
 
\includegraphics[width=4in]{../gfx/fullpline.eps}
 
 
 
\caption{An Ideal Pipeline: One instruction per clock cycle}\label{fig:ideal-pipeline}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
 
 
        Notice that, in this figure, all the pipeline stages are complete and
 
 
 
        full.  Every instruction takes one clock and there are no delays.
 
 
 
        However, as the discussion above pointed out, the memory associated
 
 
 
        with a SwiC may not allow single clock access.  It may be instead
 
 
 
        that you can only read every two clocks.  In that case, what shall
 
 
 
        the pipeline look like?  Should it look like
 
 
 
        Fig.~\ref{fig:waiting-pipeline},
 
 
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\includegraphics[width=4in]{../gfx/stuttra.eps}
 
 
 
\caption{Instructions wait for each other}\label{fig:waiting-pipeline}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
 
 
        where instructions are held back until the pipeline is full, or should
 
 
 
        it look like Fig.~\ref{fig:independent-pipeline},
 
 
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\includegraphics[width=4in]{../gfx/stuttrb.eps}
 
 
 
\caption{Instructions proceed independently}\label{fig:independent-pipeline}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
 
 
        where each instruction is allowed to move through the pipeline
 
 
 
        independently?  For better or worse, the Zip CPU allows instructions
 
 
 
        to move through the pipeline independently.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        One approach to avoiding stalls is to use a branch delay slot,
 
\section{Scope}\label{sec:limits}
 
        such as is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:brdelay}.
 
 
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\includegraphics[width=4in]{../gfx/bdly.eps}
 
 
 
\caption{A typical branch delay slot approach}\label{fig:brdelay}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
 
 
        In this figure, instructions
 
 
 
        {\tt BR} (a branch), {\tt BD} (a branch delay instruction),
 
 
 
        are followed by instructions after the branch: {\tt IA}, {\tt IB}, etc.
 
 
 
        Since it takes a processor a clock cycle to execute a branch, the
 
 
 
        delay slot allows the processor to do something useful in that
 
 
 
        branch.  The problem the Zip CPU has with this approach is, what
 
 
 
        happens when the pipeline looks like Fig.~\ref{fig:brbroken}?
 
 
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\includegraphics[width=4in]{../gfx/bdbroken.eps}
 
 
 
\caption{The branch delay slot breaks with a slow memory}\label{fig:brbroken}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
 
 
        In this case, the branch delay slot never gets filled in the first
 
 
 
        place, and so the pipeline squashes it before it gets executed.
 
 
 
        If not that, then what happens when handling interrupts or
 
 
 
        debug stepping: when has the CPU finished an instruction?
 
 
 
        When the {\tt BR} instruction has finished, or must {\tt BD}
 
 
 
        follow every {\tt BR}?  and, again, what if the pipeline isn't
 
 
 
        full?
 
 
 
        These thoughts killed any hopes of doing delayed branching.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        So I switched to a model of discrete execution: Once an instruction
 
 
 
        enters into either the ALU or memory unit, the instruction is
 
 
 
        guaranteed to complete.  If the logic recognizes a branch or a
 
 
 
        condition that would render the instruction entering into this stage
 
 
 
        possibly inappropriate (i.e. a conditional branch preceding a store
 
 
 
        instruction for example), then the pipeline stalls for one cycle
 
 
 
        until the conditional branch completes.  Then, if it generates a new
 
 
 
        PC address, the stages preceding are all wiped clean.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        This model, however, generated too many pipeline stalls, so the
 
 
 
        discrete execution model was modified to allow instructions to go
 
 
 
        through the ALU unit and be canceled before writeback.  This removed
 
 
 
        the stall associated with ALU instructions before untaken branches.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        The discrete execution model allows such things as sleeping, as
 
The ZipCPU is itself nothing more than a CPU that can be placed within a
 
        outlined in Fig.~\ref{fig:sleeping}.
 
larger design.  It is not a System on a Chip, but it can be used to create
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
a system on a chip.  As a result, this document will not discuss more than a
 
\includegraphics[width=4in]{../gfx/sleep.eps}
 
small handful of CPU--related peripherals, as the actual peripherals used
 
\caption{How the CPU halts when sleeping}\label{fig:sleeping}
 
within a design will vary from one design to the next.  Further, because
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
control access will vary from one environment to the next, this document will
 
        If the
 
not discuss any host control programs, leaving those to be discussed and defined
 
        CPU is put to ``sleep,'' the ALU and memory stages stall and back up
 
together with the environments the ZipCPU is placed within.
 
        everything before them.  Likewise, anything that has entered the ALU
 
 
 
        or memory stage when the CPU is placed to sleep continues to completion.
 
 
 
        To handle this logic, each pipeline stage has three control signals:
 
 
 
        a valid signal, a stall signal, and a clock enable signal.  In
 
 
 
        general, a stage stalls if it's contents are valid and the next step
 
 
 
        is stalled.  This allows the pipeline to fill any time a later stage
 
 
 
        stalls, as illustrated in Fig.~\ref{fig:stacking}.
 
 
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\includegraphics[width=4in]{../gfx/stacking.eps}
 
 
 
\caption{Instructions can stack up behind a stalled instruction}\label{fig:stacking}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
 
 
        However, if a pipeline hazard is detected, a stage can stall in order
 
 
 
        to prevent the previous from moving forward.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        This approach is also different from other pipeline approaches.
 
\chapter{CPU Architecture}\label{chap:arch}
 
        Instead of keeping the entire pipeline filled, each stage is treated
 
 
 
        independently.  Therefore, individual stages may move forward as long
 
 
 
        as the subsequent stage is available, regardless of whether the stage
 
 
 
        behind it is filled.
 
 
 
\end{itemize}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
With that introduction out of the way, let's move on to the instruction
 
This chapter describes the general architecture of the ZipCPU.  It first
 
set.
 
discusses
 
 
 
the configuration options to the CPU and then breaks into two threads. These
 
 
 
last two threads are a discussion of the internals of the ZipCPU, such as its
 
 
 
instruction set architecture and the details and consequences of it, and then
 
 
 
the external architecture describing how the ZipCPU fits into the systems
 
 
 
surrounding it, and what those systems must do to support it.  Specifically,
 
 
 
the external architecture section will discuss both the ZipSystem, the
 
 
 
peripherals provided by it, as well as the debug interface.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Build Options/defines}\label{ssec:build-options}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
One problem with a simple goal such as being light on logic, is that some
 
 
 
architectures have some needs, others have other needs.  What is light logic
 
 
 
in some architectures might consume all the available logic in others.
 
 
 
As an example, the CMod~S6 board built by Digilent uses a very spare Xilinx
 
 
 
Spartan~6 LX4 FPGA.  This FPGA doesn't have enough look up tables (LUTs) to
 
 
 
support pipelined mode, whereas another project running on a XuLA2 LX25 board
 
 
 
made by Xess, having a Spartan~6 LX25 on board, has more than enough logic
 
 
 
to support a pipelined mode.   Very quickly it becomes clear that LUTs can be
 
 
 
traded for performance.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
To make this possible, the ZipCPU has both a configuration file as well as a
 
 
 
set of parameters that it can be built with.  Often, those parameters can
 
 
 
override the configuration file, but not all configuration file changes can
 
 
 
be overridden.  Several options are available within the configuration file,
 
 
 
such as making the Zip CPU pipelined or not, able to handle a faster clock
 
 
 
with more stalls or a slower clock with no stalls, etc.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The {\tt cpudefs.v} file encapsulates those control options.  It contains a
 
 
 
series of {\tt `define} statements that can either be commented or left
 
 
 
active.  If active, the option is considered to be in effect.  The number of
 
 
 
LUTs the Zip CPU uses varies dramatically with the options defined in this file.
 
 
 
This section will outline the various configuration options captured by this
 
 
 
file.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The first couple of options control the Zip CPU instruction set, and how
 
 
 
it handles various instructions within the set:
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
{\tt OPT\_MULTIPLY} controls whether or not the multiply is built and included
 
 
 
in the ALU by default, and if it is which of several multiply options is
 
 
 
selected.  Unlike many of the defines that follow within {\tt cpudefs.v} that
 
 
 
are either defined or not, this option requires a value.  A value of zero means
 
 
 
no multiply support, whereas a value of one, two, or three, means that a
 
 
 
multiply will be included that takes one, two, or three clock cycles to
 
 
 
complete.  The option, however, only controls the default value that the
 
 
 
{\tt IMPLEMENT\_MPY} parameter to the CPU, having the same interpretation, is
 
 
 
given.  Because this is just the default value, it can easily be overridden
 
 
 
upon instantiation.  If the {\tt IMPLEMENT\_MPY} parameter is set to zero,
 
 
 
then any attempt to execute a multiply instruction will cause an illegal
 
 
 
instruction exception.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
{\tt OPT\_DIVIDE} controls whether or not the divide instruction is built and
 
 
 
included into the ZipCPU by default.  Set this option and the
 
 
 
{\tt IMPLEMENT\_DIVIDE} parameter will have a default value of one, meaning that
 
 
 
unless it is overridden with zero, the divide unit will be included.    If the
 
 
 
divide is not included, then any attempt to use a divide instruction will
 
 
 
create an illegal instruction exception that will send the CPU into supervisor
 
 
 
mode.
 
 
 
 
 
\chapter{CPU Architecture}\label{chap:arch}
 
{\tt OPT\_IMPLEMENT\_FPU} will (one day) control whether or not the floating
 
 
 
point unit (once I have one) is built and included into the ZipCPU by default.
 
 
 
This option sets the {\tt IMPLEMENT\_FPU} parameter to one, so alternatively
 
 
 
it can be set and adjusted upon instantiation.  If the floating point unit is
 
 
 
not included then, as with the multiply and divide, any floating point
 
 
 
instruction will result in an illegal instruction exception that will send the
 
 
 
CPU into supervisor mode.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
{\tt OPT\_SINGLE\_FETCH} controls whether or not the prefetch has a cache, and
 
 
 
whether or not it can issue one instruction per clock.  When set, the
 
 
 
prefetch has no cache, and only one instruction is fetched at any given time.
 
 
 
This effectively sets the CPU so that only one instruction is ever
 
 
 
in the pipeline at a time, and hence you may think of this as a ``no
 
 
 
pipeline'' option.  However, since the pipeline uses so much area on the FPGA,
 
 
 
this is an important option to use in trimming down used logic if necessary.
 
 
 
Hence, it needs to be maintained for that purpose.  Be aware, though, setting
 
 
 
this option will disable all pipelining, and therefore will drop your
 
 
 
performance by a factor of 8x or even more.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
I recommend only defining or enabling this option if you {\em need} to,
 
 
 
such as if area is tight and speed isn't as important.  Otherwise, leave the
 
 
 
option undefined since the pipelined options have a much better speed
 
 
 
performance.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The next several options are pipeline optimization options.  They make no
 
 
 
sense in a single instruction fetch mode, hence they are all disabled if
 
 
 
{\tt OPT\_SINGLE\_FETCH} is defined.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
{\tt OPT\_PIPELINED} is the natural result and opposite of using the single
 
 
 
instruction fetch unit.  It is an internal parameter that doesn't need user
 
 
 
adjustment, but if you look through the {\tt cpudefs.v} file you may see
 
 
 
and notice it.  If you have not set the {\tt OPT\_SINGLE\_FETCH} parameter,
 
 
 
{\tt cpudefs.v} will set the {\tt OPT\_PIPELINED} option.  This is more for
 
 
 
readability than anything else, since {\tt OPT\_PIPELINED} makes more
 
 
 
intuitive readability sense than {\tt OPT\_SINGLE\_FETCH}.  In other words,
 
 
 
define or comment out {\tt OPT\_SINGLE\_FETCH}, and let {\tt OPT\_PIPELINED} be
 
 
 
taken care of automatically.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Assuming you have chosen not to define {\tt OPT\_SINGLE\_FETCH},
 
 
 
{\tt OPT\_TRADITIONAL\_PFCACHE} allows you to switch between one of two
 
 
 
prefetch cache modules.  If enabled (recommended), a more traditional cache
 
 
 
will be implemented in the CPU.  This more traditional cache reduces
 
 
 
the stall count tremendously over the alternative pipeline cache, and its
 
 
 
LUT usage is quite competitive.  As there is little downside to defining
 
 
 
this option if pipelining is enabled, I would recommend including it.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The alternative prefetch and cache, sometimes called the pipeline cache, tries
 
 
 
to read instructions ahead of where they are needed, while maintaining what it
 
 
 
has read in a cache.  That cache is cleared anytime you jump outside of its
 
 
 
window, and it often competes with the CPU for access to the bus.  These
 
 
 
two characteristics make this alternative bus often less than optimal.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
{\tt OPT\_EARLY\_BRANCHING} is an attempt to execute a {\tt BRA} (branch or
 
 
 
jump) statement as early
 
 
 
in the pipeline as possible, to avoid as many pipeline stalls on a branch as
 
 
 
possible.  As an example, if you have {\tt OPT\_TRADITIONAL\_PFCACHE} defined
 
 
 
as well, then branches within the cache will only cost a single stall cycle.
 
 
 
Indeed, using early branching, a {\tt BRA} instruction can be used as the
 
 
 
compiler's branch prediction optimizer: {\tt BRA}'s barely stall, while
 
 
 
branches on conditions will always suffer about 6~stall cycles.  Setting
 
 
 
this option causes the parameter, {\tt EARLY\_BRANCHING}, to be set to one,
 
 
 
so it can be overridden upon instantiation.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Given the performance benefits achieved by early branching, setting this flag
 
 
 
is highly recommended.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
{\tt OPT\_PIPELINED\_BUS\_ACCESS} controls whether or not {\tt LOD}/{\tt STO}
 
 
 
instructions can take advantage of the pipelined wishbone bus.  To be
 
 
 
eligible, the operations to be pipelined must be adjacent, must be all
 
 
 
{\tt LOD}s or all {\tt STO}s, and the addresses must all use the same base
 
 
 
address register and either have identical immediate offsets, or immediate
 
 
 
offsets that increase by one for each instruction.  Further, the
 
 
 
{\tt LOD}/{\tt STO} string of instructions must all have the same conditional
 
 
 
(if any).  Currently, this approach and benefit is most effectively used
 
 
 
when saving registers to or restoring registers from the stack at the
 
 
 
beginning/end of a procedure, when using assembly optimized programs, or
 
 
 
when doing a context swap.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
I recommend setting this flag, for performance reasons, especially if your
 
 
 
wishbone bus implementation can handle pipelined bus accesses.  The logic
 
 
 
impact of this setting is minimal, the performance impact can be significant.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
{\tt OPT\_VLIW} includes within the instruction set the Very Long Instruction
 
 
 
Word packing, which packs up to two instructions within each instruction word.
 
 
 
Non--packed instructions will still execute as normal, this just enables the
 
 
 
decoding and running of packed instructions.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The two next options, {\tt INCLUDE\_DMA\_CONTROLLER} and
 
 
 
{\tt INCLUDE\_ACCOUNTING\_COUNTERS}
 
 
 
control whether the DMA controller is included in the ZipSystem, and
 
 
 
whether or not the eight accounting timers are also included.  Set these to
 
 
 
include the respective peripherals, comment them out not to.  These only
 
 
 
affect the ZipSystem implementation, and not any ZipBones implementations.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Finally, if you find yourself needing to debug the core and specifically needing
 
 
 
to get a trace from the core to find out why something specifically failed,
 
 
 
you may find it useful to define {\tt DEBUG\_SCOPE}.  This will add a 32--bit
 
 
 
debug output from the core, as the last argument to the core, to the ZipSystem,
 
 
 
or even to ZipBones.  The actual definition and composition of this debugging
 
 
 
bit--field changes from one implementation to the next, depending upon needs
 
 
 
and necessities, so please look at the code at the bottom of {\tt zipcpu.v}
 
 
 
for more details.
 
 
 
 
 
The Zip CPU supports a set of two operand instructions, where the second operand
 
That ends our discussion of CPU options, but there remain several implementation
 
(always a register) is the result.  The only exception is the store instruction,
 
parameters that can be defined with the CPU as well.  Some of these, such as
 
where the first operand (always a register) is the source of the data to be
 
{\tt IMPLEMENT\_MPY}, {\tt IMPLEMENT\_DIVIDE}, {\tt IMPLEMENT\_FPU}, and
 
stored.
 
{\tt EARLY\_BRANCHING} have already been discussed. The remainder shall be
 
 
 
discussed quickly here.
 
\section{Simplified Bus}
 
 
 
The bus architecture of the Zip CPU is that of a simplified WISHBONE bus.
 
The {\tt RESET\_ADDRESS} parameter controls what address the CPU attempts to
 
It has been simplified in this fashion: all operations are 32--bit operations.
 
fetch its first instruction from upon any CPU reset.  The default value is
 
The bus is neither little endian nor big endian.  For this reason, all words
 
not likely to be particularly useful, so overriding the default is recommended
 
are 32--bits.  All instructions are also 32--bits wide.  Everything has been
 
for every implementation.
 
built around the 32--bit word.
 
 
 
 
 
The {\tt ADDRESS\_WIDTH} parameter can be used to trim down the width of
 
\section{Register Set}
 
addresses used by the CPU.  For example, although the Wishbone Bus definition
 
The Zip CPU supports two sets of sixteen 32-bit registers, a supervisor
 
used by the CPU  has 32--address lines, particular implementations may have
 
and a user set as shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:regset}.
 
fewer.  By setting this value to the actual number of wires in the address
 
 
 
bus, some logic can be spared within the CPU.  The default is a 32--bit wide
 
 
 
bus.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The {\tt LGICACHE} parameter specifies the log base two of the instruction
 
 
 
cache size.  If no instruction cache is used, this option has no effect.
 
 
 
Otherwise it sets the size of the instruction cache to be
 
 
 
$2^{\mbox{\tiny\tt LGICACHE}}$ words.  The traditional prefetch cache, if used,
 
 
 
will split this cache size into up to thirty two separate cache lines.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The {\tt IMPLEMENT\_LOCK} parameter controls whether or not the {\tt LOCK}
 
 
 
instruction is implemented.  If set to zero, the {\tt LOCK} instruction will
 
 
 
cause an illegal instruction exception, otherwise it will be implemented if
 
 
 
pipelining is enabled.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Other parameters are defined within the ZipSystem parent module, and affect
 
 
 
the performance of the system as a whole.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The {\tt START\_HALTED} parameter, if set to non--zero, will cause the
 
 
 
CPU to be halted upon startup.  This is useful for debugging, since it prevents
 
 
 
the CPU from doing anything without supervision.  Of course, once all pieces
 
 
 
of your design are in place and proven, you'll probably want to set this to
 
 
 
zero.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The {\tt EXTERNAL\_INTERRUPTS} parameter controls the number of interrupt
 
 
 
wires coming into the CPU.  This number must be between one and sixteen,
 
 
 
or if the performance counters are disabled, between one and twenty four.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Internal Architecture}\label{sec:internals}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This section discusses the general architecture of the CPU itself, separated
 
 
 
from its environment.  As such, it focuses on the instruction set layout
 
 
 
and how those instructions are implemented.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Register Set}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fundamental to the understanding of the ZipCPU is its register set, and the
 
 
 
performance model associated with it.
 
 
 
The ZipCPU register set contains two sets of sixteen 32-bit registers, a
 
 
 
supervisor and a user set as shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:regset}.
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\includegraphics[width=3.5in]{../gfx/regset.eps}
 
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|}
 
 
 
\multicolumn{2}{c}{Supervisor Register Set} &
 
 
 
        \multicolumn{1}{c}{} &
 
 
 
        \multicolumn{2}{c}{User Register Set} \\
 
 
 
\multicolumn{2}{c}{\#'s 0-15} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{} &
 
 
 
        \multicolumn{2}{c}{\#'s 16-31} \\\hline\hline
 
 
 
sR0(LR) & sR8   && uR0(LR) &    uR8     \\\cline{1-2}\cline{4-5}
 
 
 
sR1     & sR9   && uR1  &       uR9     \\\cline{1-2}\cline{4-5}
 
 
 
sR2     & sR10  && uR2  &       uR10    \\\cline{1-2}\cline{4-5}
 
 
 
sR3     & sR11  && uR3  &       uR11    \\\cline{1-2}\cline{4-5}
 
 
 
sR4     & sR12(FP)&& uR4&       uR12(FP)\\\cline{1-2}\cline{4-5}
 
 
 
sR5     & sSP   && uR5  &       uSP     \\\cline{1-2}\cline{4-5}
 
 
 
sR6     & sCC   && uR6  &       uCC     \\\cline{1-2}\cline{4-5}
 
 
 
sR7     & sPC   && uR7  &       uPC     \\\hline\hline
 
 
 
\multicolumn{2}{c}{Interrupts Disabled} &
 
 
 
        \multicolumn{1}{c}{} &
 
 
 
        \multicolumn{2}{c}{Interrupts Enabled} \\
 
 
 
\end{tabular}
 
\caption{Zip CPU Register File}\label{fig:regset}
 
\caption{Zip CPU Register File}\label{fig:regset}
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
The supervisor set is used in interrupt mode when interrupts are disabled,
 
The supervisor set is used when interrupts are disabled, whereas the user set
 
whereas the user set is used otherwise.  Of this register set, the Program
 
is used any time interrupts are enabled.  This choice makes it easy to set up
 
Counter (PC) is register 15, whereas the status register (SR) or condition
 
a working context upon any interrupt, as the supervisor register set remains
 
code register
 
what it was when interrupts were enabled.  This sets up one of two modes
 
(CC) is register 14.  By convention, the stack pointer will be register 13 and
 
the CPU can run within: a {\em supervisor mode}, which runs with interrupts
 
noted as (SP)--although there is nothing special about this register other
 
disabled using the supervisor register set, and {\em user mode}, which runs
 
than this convention.  Also by convention register~12 will point to a global
 
with interrupts enabled using the user register set.
 
offset table, and may be abbreviated as the (GBL) register.
 
 
 
The CPU can access both register sets via move instructions from the
 
This separation is so fundamental to the CPU that it is impossible to enable
 
supervisor state, whereas the user state can only access the user registers.
 
interrupts without switching to the user register set.   Further, on any
 
 
 
interrupt, exception, or trap, the CPU simply clears the pipeline and switches
 
 
 
instruction sets.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In each register set, the Program Counter (PC) is register 15, whereas
 
 
 
the status register (SR) or condition code register (CC) is register 14.  All
 
 
 
other registers are identical in their hardware functionality.\footnote{Jumps
 
 
 
to {\tt R0}, an instruction used to implement a return from a subroutine, may
 
 
 
be optimized in the future within the early branch logic.} By convention, the
 
 
 
stack pointer is register 13 and noted as (SP)--although there is nothing
 
 
 
special about this register other than this convention.  Also by convention, if
 
 
 
the compiler needs a frame pointer it will be placed into register~12, and may
 
 
 
be abbreviated by FP.  Finally, by convention, R0 will hold a subroutine's
 
 
 
return address, sometimes called the link register (LR).
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
When the CPU is in supervisor mode, instructions can access both register sets
 
 
 
via the {\tt MOV} instruction, whereas when the CPU is in user mode, {\tt MOV}
 
 
 
instructions will only offer access to user registers.  We'll discuss this
 
 
 
further in subsection.~\ref{sec:isa-mov}.
 
 
 
 
 
The status register is special, and bears further mention.  As shown in
 
\subsection{The Status Register, CC}
 
 
 
The status register (CC) is special, and bears further mention.  As shown in
 
Fig.~\ref{tbl:cc-register},
 
Fig.~\ref{tbl:cc-register},
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
31\ldots 23 & R & Reserved for future uses\\\hline
 
31\ldots 23 & R & Reserved for future uses\\\hline
 
22\ldots 15 & R/W & Reserved for future uses\\\hline
 
22\ldots 16 & R/W & Reserved for future uses\\\hline
 
14 & W & Clear I-Cache command\\\hline
 
15 & R & Reserved for MMU exceptions\\\hline
 
 
 
14 & W & Clear I-Cache command, always reads zero\\\hline
 
13 & R & VLIW instruction phase (1 for first half)\\\hline
 
13 & R & VLIW instruction phase (1 for first half)\\\hline
 
12 & R & (Reserved for) Floating Point Exception\\\hline
 
12 & R & (Reserved for) Floating Point Exception\\\hline
 
11 & R & Division by Zero Exception\\\hline
 
11 & R & Division by Zero Exception\\\hline
 
10 & R & Bus-Error Flag\\\hline
 
10 & R & Bus-Error Flag\\\hline
 
9 & R & Trap Flag (or user interrupt).  Cleared on return to userspace.\\\hline
 
9 & R & Trap Flag (or user interrupt).  Cleared on return to userspace.\\\hline
Line 542... Line 621... 
1 & R/W & Carry\\\hline
 
1 & R/W & Carry\\\hline
 
0 & R/W & Zero.  The last ALU operation produced a zero.\\\hline
 
0 & R/W & Zero.  The last ALU operation produced a zero.\\\hline
 
\end{bitlist}
 
\end{bitlist}
 
\caption{Condition Code Register Bit Assignment}\label{tbl:cc-register}
 
\caption{Condition Code Register Bit Assignment}\label{tbl:cc-register}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
the lower 15~bits of the status register form
 
the lower sixteen bits of the status register form a set of CPU state and
 
a set of CPU state and condition codes.  Writes to other bits of this register
 
condition codes.  The other bits are reserved for future uses.
 
are preserved.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Of the condition codes, the bottom four bits are the current flags:
 
Of the condition codes, the bottom four bits are the current flags:
 
                Zero (Z),
 
                Zero (Z),
 
                Carry (C),
 
                Carry (C),
 
                Negative (N),
 
                Negative (N),
 
                and Overflow (V).
 
                and Overflow (V).
 
On those instructions that set the flags, these flags will be set based upon
 
These flags maintain their usual definition from other CPUs that use them, for
 
the output of the instruction.  If the result is zero, the Z flag will be set.
 
all but the shift right instructions.  On those instructions that set the flags,
 
If the high order bit is set, the N flag will be set.  If the instruction
 
these flags will be set based upon the output of certain instructions.  If the
 
caused a bit to fall off the end, the carry bit will be set.  Finally, if
 
result is zero, the Z (zero) flag will be set.  If the high order bit is set,
 
the instruction causes a signed integer overflow, the V flag will be set
 
the N (negative) flag will be set.  If the instruction caused a bit to fall off
 
afterwards.
 
the end, the carry bit will be set.  In comparisons, this is equivalent to a
 
 
 
less--than unsigned comparison.  Finally, if the instruction causes a signed
 
 
 
integer overflow, the V (overflow) flag will be set afterwards.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
We'll walk through the next many bits of the status register in order from
 
 
 
least significant to most significant.
 
 
 
 
 
The next bit is a sleep bit.  Set this bit to one to disable instruction
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
 
 
        \setcounter{enumi}{3}
 
 
 
\item The next bit is a sleep bit.  Set this bit to one to disable instruction
 
        execution and place the CPU to sleep, or to zero to keep the pipeline
 
        execution and place the CPU to sleep, or to zero to keep the pipeline
 
        running.  Setting this bit will cause the CPU to wait for an interrupt
 
        running.  Setting this bit will cause the CPU to wait for an interrupt
 
        (if interrupts are enabled), or to completely halt (if interrupts are
 
        (if interrupts are enabled), or to completely halt (if interrupts are
 
        disabled).  In order to prevent users from halting the CPU, only the
 
        disabled).  This leads to the {\tt WAIT} and {\tt HALT} opcodes
 
        supervisor is allowed to both put the CPU to sleep and disable
 
        which will be discussed more later.  In order to prevent users from
 
        interrupts.  Any user attempt to do so will simply result in a switch
 
        halting the CPU, only the supervisor is allowed to both put the CPU to
 
        to supervisor mode.
 
        sleep and disable interrupts.  Any user attempt to do so will simply
 
 
 
        result in a switch to supervisor mode.
 
 
 
 
 
The sixth bit is a global interrupt enable bit (GIE).  When this
 
\item The sixth bit is a global interrupt enable bit (GIE).  This bit also
 
 
 
        forms the top, or fifth, bit of any register address.  When this
 
        sixth bit is a `1' interrupts will be enabled, else disabled.  When
 
        sixth bit is a `1' interrupts will be enabled, else disabled.  When
 
        interrupts are disabled, the CPU will be in supervisor mode, otherwise
 
        interrupts are disabled, the CPU will be in supervisor mode, otherwise
 
        it is in user mode.  Thus, to execute a context switch, one only
 
        it is in user mode.  Thus, to execute a context switch, one only
 
        need enable or disable interrupts.  (When an interrupt line goes
 
        need enable or disable interrupts.  (When an interrupt line goes
 
        high, interrupts will automatically be disabled, as the CPU goes
 
        high, interrupts will automatically be disabled, as the CPU goes
 
        and deals with its context switch.)  Special logic has been added to
 
        and deals with its context switch.)  Special logic has been added to
 
        keep the user mode from setting the sleep register and clearing the
 
        keep the user mode from setting the sleep register and clearing the
 
        GIE register at the same time, with clearing the GIE register taking
 
        GIE register at the same time, with clearing the GIE register taking
 
        precedence.
 
        precedence.
 
 
 
 
 
The seventh bit is a step bit.  This bit can be set from supervisor mode only.
 
        Whenever read, the supervisor CC register will always have this bit
 
        After setting this bit, should the supervisor mode process switch to
 
        cleared, whereas the user CC register will always have this bit set.
 
        user mode, it would then accomplish one instruction in user mode
 
 
 
        before returning to supervisor mode.  Then, upon return to supervisor
 
\item The seventh bit is a step bit in the user CC register, and zero in the
 
        mode, this bit will be automatically cleared.  This bit has no effect
 
        supervisor CC director.  This bit can only be set from supervisor
 
 
 
        mode.  After setting this bit, should the supervisor mode process switch
 
 
 
        to user mode, it would then accomplish one instruction in user mode
 
 
 
        before returning to supervisor mode.  This bit has no effect
 
        on the CPU while in supervisor mode.
 
        on the CPU while in supervisor mode.
 
 
 
 
 
        This functionality was added to enable a userspace debugger
 
        This functionality was added to enable a userspace debugger
 
        functionality on a user process, working through supervisor mode
 
        functionality on a user process, working through supervisor mode
 
        of course.
 
        of course.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        The CPU can be stepped in supervisor mode.  Doing so requires the
 
 
 
        CPU debug functionality, not the step bit.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The eighth bit is a break enable bit.  When applied to the supervisor CC
 
\item The eighth bit is a break enable bit.  When applied to the supervisor CC
 
register, this controls whether a break instruction in user mode will halt
 
        register, this controls whether a break instruction in user mode will
 
the processor for an external debugger (break enabled), or whether the break
 
        halt the processor for an external debugger (break enabled), or
 
instruction will simply send send the CPU into interrupt mode.  Encountering
 
        whether the break instruction will simply send send the CPU into
 
a break in supervisor mode will halt the CPU independent of the break enable
 
        interrupt mode.  This bit can only be set within supervisor mode.
 
bit.  This bit can only be set within supervisor mode.  However, when applied
 
        However, when applied to the user CC register, from supervisor mode,
 
to the user CC register, from supervisor mode, this bit will indicate whether
 
        this bit will indicate whether or not the reason the CPU entered
 
or not the reason the CPU entered supervisor mode was from a break instruction
 
        supervisor mode was from a break instruction or not.  This break
 
or not.  This break reason bit is automatically cleared upon any transition to
 
        reason bit is automatically cleared upon any transition to user mode,
 
user mode, although it can also be cleared by the supervisor writing to the
 
        although it can also be cleared by the supervisor writing to the
 
user CC register.
 
user CC register.
 
 
 
 
 
% Should break enable be a supervisor mode bit, while the break enable bit
 
        Encountering a break in supervisor mode will halt the CPU independent
 
% in user mode is a break has taken place bit?
 
        of the break enable bit.
 
%
 
 
 
 
 
        This functionality was added to enable a debugger to set and manage
 
 
 
        breakpoints in a user mode process.
 
 
 
 
 
This functionality was added to enable an external debugger to
 
\item The ninth bit is an illegal instruction bit.  When the CPU tries to
 
        set and manage breakpoints.
 
        execute either a non-existent instruction, or an instruction from
 
 
 
        an address that produces a bus error, the CPU will (if implemented)
 
 
 
        switch to supervisor mode while setting this bit.  The bit will
 
 
 
        automatically be cleared upon any return to user mode.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item The tenth bit is a trap bit.  It is set whenever the user requests a
 
 
 
        soft interrupt, and cleared on any return to userspace command.  This
 
 
 
        allows the supervisor, in supervisor mode, to determine whether it got
 
 
 
        to supervisor mode from a trap, from an external interrupt or both.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item The eleventh bit is a bus error flag.  If the user program encountered
 
 
 
        a bus error, this bit will be set in the user CC register and the CPU
 
 
 
        will switch to supervisor mode.  The bit may be cleared by the
 
 
 
        supervisor, otherwise it is automatically cleared upon any return to
 
 
 
        user mode.  If the supervisor encounters a bus error, this bit will be
 
 
 
        set in the supervisor CC register and the CPU will halt.  In that
 
 
 
        case, either a CPU reset or a write to the supervisor CC register will
 
 
 
        clear this register.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item The twelfth bit is a division by zero exception flag.  This operates
 
 
 
        in a fashion similar to the bus error flag.  If the user attempts
 
 
 
        to use the divide instruction with a zero denominator, the system
 
 
 
        will switch to supervisor mode and set this bit in the user CC
 
 
 
        register.  The bit is automatically cleared upon any return to user
 
 
 
        mode, although it can also be manually cleared by the supervisor.  In
 
 
 
        a similar fashion, if the supervisor attempts to execute a divide by
 
 
 
        zero, the CPU will halt and set the zero exception flag in the
 
 
 
        supervisor's CC register.  This will automatically be cleared upon any
 
 
 
        CPU reset, or it may be manually cleared by the external debugger
 
 
 
        writing to this register.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item The thirteenth bit will operate in a similar fashion to both the bus
 
 
 
        error and division by zero flags, only it will be set upon a (yet to
 
 
 
        be determined) floating point error.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item In the case of VLIW instructions, if an exception occurs after the first
 
 
 
        instruction but before the second, the fourteenth bit of the CC register
 
 
 
        will be set to indicate this fact.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item The fifteenth bit references a clear cache bit.  The supervisor may
 
 
 
        write a one to this bit in order to clear the CPU instruction cache.
 
 
 
        The bit always reads as a zero.
 
 
 
 
 
The ninth bit is an illegal instruction bit.  When the CPU
 
\item Last, but not least, the sixteenth bit is reserved for a page not found
 
tries to execute either a non-existant instruction, or an instruction from
 
        memory exception to be created by the memory management unit.
 
an address that produces a bus error, the CPU will (if implemented) switch
 
 
 
to supervisor mode while setting this bit.  The bit will automatically be
 
\end{enumerate}
 
cleared upon any return to user mode.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The tenth bit is a trap bit.  It is set whenever the user requests a soft
 
 
 
interrupt, and cleared on any return to userspace command.  This allows the
 
 
 
supervisor, in supervisor mode, to determine whether it got to supervisor
 
 
 
mode from a trap or from an external interrupt or both.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The eleventh bit is a bus error flag.  If the user program encountered a bus
 
 
 
error, this bit will be set in the user CC register and the CPU will switch to
 
 
 
supervisor mode.  The bit may be cleared by the supervisor, otherwise it is
 
 
 
automatically cleared upon any return to user mode.  If the supervisor
 
 
 
encounters a bus error, this bit will be set in the supervisor CC register
 
 
 
and the CPU will halt.  In that case, either a CPU reset or a write to the
 
 
 
supervisor CC register will clear this register.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The twelth bit is a division by zero exception flag.  This operates in a fashion
 
 
 
similar to the bus error flag.  If the user attempts to use the divide
 
 
 
instruction with a zero denominator, the system will switch to supervisor mode
 
 
 
and set this bit in the user CC register.  The bit is automatically cleared
 
 
 
upon any return to user mode, although it can also be manually cleared by
 
 
 
the supervisor.  In a similar fashion, if the supervisor attempts to execute
 
 
 
a divide by zero, the CPU will halt and set the zero exception flag in the
 
 
 
supervisor's CC register.  This will automatically be cleared upon any CPU
 
 
 
reset, or it may be manually cleared by the external debugger writing to this
 
 
 
register.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The thirteenth bit will operate in a similar fashion to both the bus error
 
 
 
and division by zero flags, only it will be set upon a (yet to be determined)
 
 
 
floating point error.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Finally, the fourteenth bit references a clear cache bit.  The supervisor may
 
 
 
write a one to this bit in order to clear the CPU instruction cache.  The
 
 
 
bit always reads as a zero.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Some of the upper bits have been temporarily assigned to indicate CPU
 
Some of the upper bits have been temporarily assigned to indicate CPU
 
capabilities.  This is not a permanent feature, as these upper bits officially
 
capabilities.  This is not a permanent feature, as these upper bits officially
 
remain reserved.
 
remain reserved.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Instruction Format}
 
\subsection{Instruction Format}\label{sec:isa-fmt}
 
All Zip CPU instructions fit in one of the formats shown in
 
All Zip CPU instructions fit in one of the formats shown in
 
Fig.~\ref{fig:iset-format}.
 
Fig.~\ref{fig:iset-format}.
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\begin{bytefield}[endianness=big]{32}
 
\begin{bytefield}[endianness=big]{32}
 
\bitheader{0-31}\\
 
\bitheader{0-31}\\
Line 730... Line 833... 
\end{bytefield}
 
\end{bytefield}
 
\caption{Zip Instruction Set Format}\label{fig:iset-format}
 
\caption{Zip Instruction Set Format}\label{fig:iset-format}
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
The basic format is that some operation, defined by the OpCode, is applied
 
The basic format is that some operation, defined by the OpCode, is applied
 
if a condition, Cnd, is true in order to produce a result which is placed in
 
if a condition, Cnd, is true in order to produce a result which is placed in
 
the destination register, or DR.  The load 23--bit signed immediate instruction
 
the destination register (DR).  There are three basic exceptions to this
 
(LDI) is different in that it accepts no conditions, and uses only a 4-bit
 
model.  The first is the {\tt MOV} instruction, which steals bits~13 and~18
 
opcode.
 
to allow supervisor access to user registers.  The second is the load 23--bit
 
 
 
signed immediate instruction ({\tt LDI}), in that it accepts no conditions and
 
This is actually a second version of instruction set definition, given certain
 
uses only a 4-bit opcode.  The last exception is the {\tt NOOP} instruction
 
lessons learned.  For example, the original instruction set had the following
 
group, containing the {\tt NOOP}, {\tt BREAK}, and {\tt LOCK} opcodes.  These
 
problems:
 
instructions ignore their register and immediate settings.\footnote{A future
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
version of the CPU may repurpose the immediate bits within the {\tt NOOP}
 
\item No opcodes were available for divide or floating point extensions to be
 
instruction to be simulator commands, while the immediate/register bits within
 
        made available.  Although there was space in the instruction set to
 
the {\tt BREAK} instruction may be used by the debugger for whatever purpose
 
        add these types of instructions, this instruction space was going to
 
it chooses to use them for--such as a breakpoint table index.}
 
        require extra logic to use.
 
 
 
\item The carveouts for instructions such as NOOP and LDIHI/LDILO required
 
The ZipCPU also supports a very long instruction word (VLIW) set of
 
        extra logic to process.
 
instructions.  These aren't truly VLIW instructions in the sense that the CPU
 
\item The instruction set wasn't very compact.  One bus operation was required
 
still only issues one instruction at a time, but they do pack two instructions
 
        for every instruction.
 
into a single instuction word.  The number of bits used by the immediate field
 
\item While the CPU supported multiplies, they were only 16x16 bit multiplies.
 
are adjusted to make space for these instruction words.  Other than instruction
 
\end{enumerate}
 
format, the only basic difference between VLIW and normal instructions is that
 
This second version was designed with two criteria.  The first was that the
 
the CPU will not switch to interrupt mode in between the two instructions,
 
new instruction set needed to be compatible, at the assembly language level,
 
unless an exception is generated by the first instruction.  Likewise a new job
 
with the previous instruction set.  Thus, it must be able to support all of
 
given to the assembler is that of automatically packing as many instructions as
 
the previous menumonics and more.  This was achieved with the sole exception
 
possible into the VLIW format.
 
that instruction immediates are generally two bits shorter than before.
 
 
 
(One bit was lost to the VLIW bit in front, another from changing from 4--bit
 
The disassembler will represent VLIW instructions by placing a vertical bar
 
to 5--bit opcodes.)  Second, the new instruction set needed to be a drop--in
 
between the two components, but still leaving them on the same line.
 
replacement for the decoder, modifying nothing else.  This was almost achieved,
 
 
 
save for two issues: the ALU unit needed to be replaced since the OpCodes
 
 
 
were reordered, and some condition code logic needed to be adjusted since the
 
 
 
condition codes were renumbered as well.  In the end, maximum reuse of the
 
 
 
existing RTL (Verilog) code was achieved in this upgrade.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
As of this second version of the Zip CPU instruction set, the Zip CPU also
 
 
 
supports a very long instruction word (VLIW) set of instructions.   These
 
 
 
instruction formats pack two instructions into a single instuction word,
 
 
 
trading immediate instruction space to do this, but in just about all other
 
 
 
respects these are identical to two standard instructions.  Other than
 
 
 
instruction format, the only basic difference is that the CPU will not switch
 
 
 
to interrupt mode in between the two instructions.  Likewise a new job given
 
 
 
to the assembler is that of automatically packing as many instructions as
 
 
 
possible into the VLIW format.  Where necessary to place both VLIW instructions
 
 
 
on the same line, they will be separated by a vertical bar.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
One belated change to the instruction set violates some of the above
 
 
 
principles.  This latter instruction set change replaced the {\tt LDIHI}
 
 
 
instruction with a 32--bit multiply instruction {\tt MPY}, and then changed
 
 
 
the two 16--bit multiply instructions {\tt MPYU} and {\tt MPYS} for
 
 
 
{\tt MPYUHI} and {\tt MPYSHI} respectively.  This creates a 32--bit
 
 
 
multiply capability, while removing the 16--bit multiply that wasn't very
 
 
 
useful. Further, the {\tt LDIHI} instruction was being used primarily by the
 
 
 
assembler and linker to create a 32--bit load immediate pair of instructions.
 
 
 
This instruction set combination, {\tt LDIHI} followed by {\tt LDILO} was
 
 
 
replaced with an equivalent instruction set, {\tt BREV} followed by {\tt LDILO},
 
 
 
save that linking has been made more complicated in the process.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Instruction OpCodes}
 
\subsection{Instruction OpCodes}\label{sec:isa-opcodes}
 
With a 5--bit opcode field, there are 32--possible instructions as shown in
 
With a 5--bit opcode field, there are 32--possible instructions as shown in
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:iset-opcodes}.
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:iset-opcodes}.
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|c|} \hline \rowcolor[gray]{0.85}
 
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|c|} \hline \rowcolor[gray]{0.85}
 
OpCode & & Instruction &Sets CC \\\hline\hline
 
OpCode & & Instruction &Sets CC \\\hline\hline
 
5'h00 & SUB & Subtract &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h00 & {\tt SUB} & Subtract &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h01 & AND & Bitwise And &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h01 & {\tt AND} & Bitwise And &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h02 & ADD & Add two numbers &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h02 & {\tt ADD} & Add two numbers &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h03 & OR  & Bitwise Or & Y \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h03 & {\tt OR}  & Bitwise Or & Y \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h04 & XOR & Bitwise Exclusive Or &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h04 & {\tt XOR} & Bitwise Exclusive Or &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h05 & LSR & Logical Shift Right &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h05 & {\tt LSR} & Logical Shift Right &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h06 & LSL & Logical Shift Left &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h06 & {\tt LSL} & Logical Shift Left &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h07 & ASR & Arithmetic Shift Right &   \\\hline
 
5'h07 & {\tt ASR} & Arithmetic Shift Right &   \\\hline
 
5'h08 & MPY & 32x32 bit multiply & Y \\\hline
 
5'h08 & {\tt MPY} & 32x32 bit multiply & Y \\\hline
 
5'h09 & LDILO & Load Immediate Low & N\\\hline
 
5'h09 & {\tt LDILO} & Load Immediate Low & N\\\hline
 
5'h0a & MPYUHI & Upper 32 of 64 bits from an unsigned 32x32 multiply &  \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h0a & {\tt MPYUHI} & Upper 32 of 64 bits from an unsigned 32x32 multiply &  \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h0b & MPYSHI & Upper 32 of 64 bits from a signed 32x32 multiply & Y \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h0b & {\tt MPYSHI} & Upper 32 of 64 bits from a signed 32x32 multiply & Y \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h0c & BREV & Bit Reverse &  \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h0c & {\tt BREV} & Bit Reverse B operand into result&  \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h0d & POPC& Population Count &  \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h0d & {\tt POPC}& Population Count &  \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h0e & ROL & Rotate left &   \\\hline
 
5'h0e & {\tt ROL} & Rotate Ra left by OpB bits&   \\\hline
 
5'h0f & MOV & Move register & N \\\hline
 
5'h0f & {\tt MOV} & Move OpB into Ra & N \\\hline
 
5'h10 & CMP & Compare & Y \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h10 & {\tt CMP} & Compare (Ra-OpB) to zero & Y \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h11 & TST & Test (AND w/o setting result) &   \\\hline
 
5'h11 & {\tt TST} & Test (AND w/o setting result) &   \\\hline
 
5'h12 & LOD & Load from memory & N \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h12 & {\tt LOD} & Load Ra from memory (OpB) & N \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h13 & STO & Store a register into memory &  \\\hline\hline
 
5'h13 & {\tt STO} & Store Ra into memory at (OpB) &  \\\hline\hline
 
5'h14 & DIVU & Divide, unsigned & Y \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h14 & {\tt DIVU} & Divide, unsigned & Y \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h15 & DIVS & Divide, signed &  \\\hline\hline
 
5'h15 & {\tt DIVS} & Divide, signed &  \\\hline\hline
 
5'h16/7 & LDI & Load 23--bit signed immediate & N \\\hline\hline
 
5'h16/7 & {\tt LDI} & Load 23--bit signed immediate & N \\\hline\hline
 
5'h18 & FPADD & Floating point add &  \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h18 & {\tt FPADD} & Floating point add &  \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h19 & FPSUB & Floating point subtract &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h19 & {\tt FPSUB} & Floating point subtract &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h1a & FPMPY & Floating point multiply & Y \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h1a & {\tt FPMPY} & Floating point multiply & Y \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h1b & FPDIV & Floating point divide &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h1b & {\tt FPDIV} & Floating point divide &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h1c & FPCVT & Convert integer to floating point &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h1c & {\tt FPI2F} & Convert integer to floating point &   \\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h1d & FPINT & Convert to integer &   \\\hline
 
5'h1d & {\tt FPF2I} & Convert floating point to integer &   \\\hline
 
5'h1e & & {\em Reserved for future use} &\\\hline
 
5'h1e & & {\em Reserved for future use} &\\\hline
 
5'h1f & & {\em Reserved for future use} &\\\hline
 
5'h1f & & {\em Reserved for future use} &\\\hline
 
5'h18 & & NOOP (A-register = PC)&\\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h18 & & \hbox to 0.5in{\tt NOOP}  (A-register = PC)&\\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h19 & & BREAK (A-register = PC)& N\\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h19 & & \hbox to 0.5in{\tt BREAK} (A-register = PC)& N\\\cline{1-3}
 
5'h1a & & LOCK (A-register = PC)&\\\hline
 
5'h1a & & \hbox to 0.5in{\tt LOCK}  (A-register = PC)&\\\hline
 
\end{tabular}
 
\end{tabular}
 
\caption{Zip CPU OpCodes}\label{tbl:iset-opcodes}
 
\caption{Zip CPU OpCodes}\label{tbl:iset-opcodes}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
%
 
%
 
Of these opcodes, the {\tt BREV} and {\tt POPC} are experimental, and may be
 
Of these opcodes, {\tt ROL} and {\tt POPC} are experimental and may be
 
replaced later, and two floating point instruction opcodes are reserved for
 
replaced in future revisions.  (If you have a reason to like or wish to keep
 
future use.
 
these opcodes, please contact me.  If you know of alternatives that might be
 
 
 
better, please let me know as well.)  There is also room for six more
 
 
 
register-less instructions in the {\tt NOOP} instruction space,
 
 
 
and two floating point instruction opcodes have been reserved for future use.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Conditional Instructions}
 
\subsection{Conditional Instructions}\label{sec:isa-cond}
 
Most, although not quite all, instructions may be conditionally executed.
 
Most, although not quite all, instructions may be conditionally executed.
 
The 23--bit load immediate instruction, together with the {\tt NOOP},
 
The 23--bit load immediate instruction, together with the {\tt NOOP},
 
{\tt BREAK}, and {\tt LOCK} instructions are the only exception to this rule.
 
{\tt BREAK}, and {\tt LOCK} instructions are the exceptions to this rule.
 
 
 
All other instructions may be conditionally executed.
 
 
 
 
 
From the four condition code flags, eight conditions are defined for standard
 
From the four condition code flags, eight conditions are defined for standard
 
instructions.  These are shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:conditions}.
 
instructions.  These are shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:conditions}.
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabular}{l|l|l}
 
\begin{tabular}{l|l|l}
 
Code & Mneumonic & Condition \\\hline
 
Code & Mnemonic & Condition \\\hline
 
3'h0 & None & Always execute the instruction \\
 
3'h0 & None & Always execute the instruction \\
 
3'h1 & {\tt .LT} & Less than ('N' set) \\
 
3'h1 & {\tt .LT} & Less than ('N' set) \\
 
3'h2 & {\tt .Z} & Only execute when 'Z' is set \\
 
3'h2 & {\tt .Z} & Only execute when 'Z' is set \\
 
3'h3 & {\tt .NZ} & Only execute when 'Z' is not set \\
 
3'h3 & {\tt .NZ} & Only execute when 'Z' is not set \\
 
3'h4 & {\tt .GT} & Greater than ('N' not set, 'Z' not set) \\
 
3'h4 & {\tt .GT} & Greater than ('N' not set, 'Z' not set) \\
Line 854... Line 933... 
3'h7 & {\tt .V} & Overflow set\\
 
3'h7 & {\tt .V} & Overflow set\\
 
\end{tabular}
 
\end{tabular}
 
\caption{Conditions for conditional operand execution}\label{tbl:conditions}
 
\caption{Conditions for conditional operand execution}\label{tbl:conditions}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
There is no condition code for less than or equal, not C or not V---there
 
There is no condition code for less than or equal, not C or not V---there
 
just wasn't enough space in 3--bits.  Conditioning on a non--supported
 
just wasn't enough space in 3--bits.  Ways of handling non--supported
 
condition is still possible, but it will take an extra instruction and a
 
conditions are discussed in Sec.~\ref{sec:in-mcond}.
 
pipeline stall.  (Ex: \hbox{\em (Stall)}; \hbox{\tt TST \$4,CC;} \hbox{\tt
 
 
 
STO.NZ R0,(R1)}) As an alternative, it is often possible to reverse the
 
With the exception of \hbox{\tt CMP} and \hbox{\tt TST} instructions,
 
condition, and thus recovering those extra two clocks.  Thus instead of
 
conditionally executed instructions will not further adjust the condition codes.
 
\hbox{\tt CMP Rx,Ry;} \hbox{\tt BNC label} you can issue a
 
Conditional \hbox{\tt CMP} or \hbox{\tt TST} instructions will adjust conditions
 
\hbox{\tt CMP 1+Ry,Rx;} \hbox{\tt BC label}.
 
whenever they are executed.  In this way, multiple conditions may be evaluated
 
 
 
without branches, creating a sort of logical and--but only if all the conditions
 
Conditionally executed instructions will not further adjust the
 
are the same.  For example, to do something if \hbox{\tt R0} is one and
 
condition codes, with the exception of \hbox{\tt CMP} and \hbox{\tt TST}
 
\hbox{\tt R1} is two, one might try code such as Tbl.~\ref{tbl:dbl-condition}.
 
instructions.   Conditional \hbox{\tt CMP} or \hbox{\tt TST} instructions
 
 
 
will adjust conditions whenever they are executed.  In this way,
 
 
 
multiple conditions may be evaluated without branches.  For example, to do
 
 
 
something if \hbox{\tt R0} is one and \hbox{\tt R1} is two, one might try
 
 
 
code such as Tbl.~\ref{tbl:dbl-condition}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabular}{l}
 
\begin{tabular}{l}
 
        {\tt CMP 1,R0} \\
 
        {\tt CMP 1,R0} \\
 
        {;\em Condition codes are now set based upon R0-1} \\
 
        {\em ; Condition codes are now set based upon R0-1} \\
 
        {\tt CMP.Z 2,R1} \\
 
        {\tt CMP.Z 2,R1} \\
 
        {;\em If R0 $\neq$ 1, conditions are unchanged.} \\
 
        {\em ; If R0 $\neq$ 1, conditions are unchanged, {\tt Z} is still false.} \\
 
        {;\em If R0 $=$ 1, conditions are set based upon R1-2.} \\
 
        {\em ; If R0 $=$ 1, conditions are now set based upon R1-2.} \\
 
        {;\em Now do something based upon the conjunction of both conditions.} \\
 
        {\em ; Now some instruction could be done based upon the conjunction} \\
 
        {;\em While we use the example of a STO, it could be any instruction.} \\
 
        {\em ; of both conditions.} \\
 
 
 
        {\em ; While we use the example of a {\tt STO}, it could easily be any
 
 
 
                instruction.} \\
 
        {\tt STO.Z R0,(R2)} \\
 
        {\tt STO.Z R0,(R2)} \\
 
\end{tabular}
 
\end{tabular}
 
\caption{An example of a double conditional}\label{tbl:dbl-condition}
 
\caption{An example of a double conditional}\label{tbl:dbl-condition}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The real utility of conditionally executed instructions is that, unlike
 
 
 
conditional branches, conditionally executed instructions will not stall
 
 
 
the bus if they are not executed.
 
 
 
 
 
In the case of VLIW instructions, only four conditions are defined as shown
 
In the case of VLIW instructions, only four conditions are defined as shown
 
in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:vliw-conditions}.
 
in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:vliw-conditions}.
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabular}{l|l|l}
 
\begin{tabular}{l|l|l}
 
Code & Mneumonic & Condition \\\hline
 
Code & Mnemonic & Condition \\\hline
 
2'h0 & None & Always execute the instruction \\
 
2'h0 & None & Always execute the instruction \\
 
2'h1 & {\tt .LT} & Less than ('N' set) \\
 
2'h1 & {\tt .LT} & Less than ('N' set) \\
 
2'h2 & {\tt .Z} & Only execute when 'Z' is set \\
 
2'h2 & {\tt .Z} & Only execute when 'Z' is set \\
 
2'h3 & {\tt .NZ} & Only execute when 'Z' is not set \\
 
2'h3 & {\tt .NZ} & Only execute when 'Z' is not set \\
 
\end{tabular}
 
\end{tabular}
 
\caption{VLIW Conditions}\label{tbl:vliw-conditions}
 
\caption{VLIW Conditions}\label{tbl:vliw-conditions}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
Further, the first bit is given a special meaning.  If the first bit is set,
 
Further, the first bit of the three is given a special meaning: If the first
 
the conditions apply to the second half of the instruction, otherwise the
 
bit is set, the conditions apply to the second half of the instruction,
 
conditions will only apply to the first half of a conditional instruction.
 
otherwise the conditions will only apply to the first half of a conditional
 
Of course, the other conditions are still available by mingling the
 
instruction.  Of course, the other conditions are still available by mingling
 
non--VLIW instructions with VLIW instructions.
 
the non--VLIW instructions with VLIW instructions.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Operand B}
 
 
 
Many instruction forms have a 19-bit source ``Operand B'' associated with them.
 
 
 
This ``Operand B'' is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:iset-format} as part of the
 
 
 
standard instructions.  This Operand B is either equal to a register plus a
 
 
 
14--bit signed immediate offset, or an 18--bit signed immediate offset by
 
 
 
itself.  This value is encoded as shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:opb}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{bytefield}[endianness=big]{19}
 
 
 
\bitheader{0-18}  \\
 
 
 
\bitbox{1}{0}\bitbox{18}{18-bit Signed Immediate} \\
 
 
 
\bitbox{1}{1}\bitbox{4}{Reg}\bitbox{14}{14-bit Signed Immediate}
 
 
 
\end{bytefield}
 
 
 
\caption{Bit allocation for Operand B}\label{tbl:opb}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fourteen and eighteen bit immediate values don't make sense for all
 
 
 
instructions.  For example, what is the point of an 18--bit immediate when
 
 
 
executing a 16--bit multiply?  Or a 16--bit load--immediate?  In these cases,
 
 
 
the extra bits are simply ignored.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
VLIW instructions still use the same operand B, only there was no room for any
 
 
 
instruction plus immediate addressing.  Therefore, VLIW instructions have either
 
 
 
a register or a 4--bit signed immediate as their operand B.  The only exception
 
 
 
is the load immediate instruction, which permits a 5--bit signed operand
 
 
 
B.\footnote{Although the space exists to extend this VLIW load immediate
 
 
 
instruction to six bits, the 5--bit limit was chosen to simplify the
 
 
 
disassembler.  This may change in the future.}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Address Modes}
 
 
 
The Zip CPU supports two addressing modes: register plus immediate, and
 
 
 
immediate address.  Addresses are therefore encoded in the same fashion as
 
 
 
Operand B's, shown above.  Practically, the VLIW instruction set only offers
 
 
 
register addressing, necessitating a non--VLIW instruction for most memory
 
 
 
operations.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A lot of long hard thought was put into whether to allow pre/post increment
 
 
 
and decrement addressing modes.  Finding no way to use these operators without
 
 
 
taking two or more clocks per instruction,\footnote{The two clocks figure
 
 
 
comes from the design of the register set, allowing only one write per clock.
 
 
 
That write is either from the memory unit or the ALU, but never both.} these
 
 
 
addressing modes have been
 
 
 
removed from the realm of possibilities.  This means that the Zip CPU has no
 
 
 
native way of executing push, pop, return, or jump to subroutine operations.
 
 
 
Each of these instructions can be emulated with a set of instructions from the
 
 
 
existing set.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Modifying Conditions}
 
\subsection{Modifying Conditions}\label{sec:in-mcond}
 
A quick look at the list of conditions supported by the Zip CPU and listed
 
A quick look at the list of conditions supported by the Zip CPU and listed
 
in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:conditions} reveals that the Zip CPU does not have a full set
 
in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:conditions} reveals that the Zip CPU does not have a full set
 
of conditions.  In particular, only one explicit unsigned condition is
 
of conditions.  In particular, only one explicit unsigned condition is
 
supported.  Therefore, Tbl.~\ref{tbl:creating-conditions}
 
supported.  Therefore, Tbl.~\ref{tbl:creating-conditions}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
Line 979... Line 1013... 
\caption{Modifying conditions}\label{tbl:creating-conditions}
 
\caption{Modifying conditions}\label{tbl:creating-conditions}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
shows examples of how these unsupported conditions can be created
 
shows examples of how these unsupported conditions can be created
 
simply by adjusting the compare instruction, for no extra cost in clocks.
 
simply by adjusting the compare instruction, for no extra cost in clocks.
 
Of course, if the compare originally had an immediate within it, that immediate
 
Of course, if the compare originally had an immediate within it, that immediate
 
would need to be loaded into a register in order to do some of these compares.
 
would need to be loaded into a register in order to do make some of these
 
This case is shown as the last case above.
 
adjustments.  That case is shown as the last case above.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Move Operands}
 
Many of these alternate conditions are chosen by the compiler implementation.
 
The previous set of operands would be perfect and complete, save only that
 
 
 
the CPU needs access to non--supervisory registers while in supervisory mode.
 
 
 
Therefore, the MOV instruction is special and offers access to these registers
 
 
 
\ldots when in supervisory mode.  To keep the compiler simple, the extra bits
 
 
 
are ignored in non-supervisory mode (as though they didn't exist), rather than
 
 
 
being mapped to new instructions or additional capabilities.  The bits
 
 
 
indicating which register set each register lies within are the A-User, marked
 
 
 
`A' in Fig.~\ref{fig:iset-format}, and B-User bits, marked as `B'.  When set
 
 
 
to a one, these refer to a user mode register.  When set to a zero, these
 
 
 
refer to a register in the current mode, whether user or supervisor.  Further,
 
 
 
because a load immediate instruction exists, there is no move capability
 
 
 
between an immediate and a register: all moves come from either a register or
 
 
 
a register plus an offset.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This actually leads to a bit of a problem: since the {\tt MOV} instruction
 
 
 
encodes which register set each register is coming from or moving to, how shall
 
 
 
a compiler or assembler know how to compile a MOV instruction without knowing
 
 
 
the mode of the CPU at the time?  For this reason, the compiler will assume
 
 
 
all MOV registers are supervisor registers, and display them as normal.
 
 
 
Anything with the user bit set will be treated as a user register and displayed
 
 
 
special.  Since the CPU quietly ignores the supervisor bits while in user mode,
 
 
 
anything marked as a user register will always be specific.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Multiply Operations}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The ZipCPU originally only supported 16x16 multiply operations.  GCC, however,
 
 
 
wanted 32x32-bit operations and building these from 16x16-bit multiplies
 
 
 
is painful.  Therefore, the ZipCPU was modified to support 32x32-bit multiplies.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In particular, the ZipCPU supports three separate 32x32-bit multiply
 
Users should be aware of any signed overflow that might take place within the
 
 
 
modified conditions, especially when numbers close to the limit are used.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Operand B}\label{sec:isa-opb}
 
 
 
Many instruction forms have a 19-bit source ``Operand B'', or OpB for short,
 
 
 
associated with them.  This ``Operand B'' is shown in
 
 
 
Fig.~\ref{fig:iset-format} as part of the standard instructions.  An Operand B
 
 
 
is either equal to a register plus a 14--bit signed immediate offset, or an
 
 
 
18--bit signed immediate offset by itself.  This value is encoded as shown in
 
 
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:opb}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{bytefield}[endianness=big]{19}
 
 
 
\bitheader{0-18}  \\
 
 
 
\bitbox{1}{0}\bitbox{18}{18-bit Signed Immediate} \\
 
 
 
\bitbox{1}{1}\bitbox{4}{Reg}\bitbox{14}{14-bit Signed Immediate}
 
 
 
\end{bytefield}
 
 
 
\caption{Bit allocation for Operand B}\label{tbl:opb}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
This format represents a deviation from many other RISC architectures that use
 
 
 
{\tt R0} to represent zero, such as OpenRISC and RISC-V.  Here, instead, we use
 
 
 
a bit within the instruction to note whether or not an immediate is used.
 
 
 
The result is that ZipCPU instructions can encode larger immediates within their
 
 
 
instruction space.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In those cases where a fourteen or eighteen bit immediate doesn't make sense,
 
 
 
such as for {\tt LDILO}, the extra bits associated with the immediate are
 
 
 
simply ignored.  (This rule does not apply to the shift instructions,
 
 
 
{\tt ASR}, {\tt LSR}, and {\tt LSL}--which all use all of their immediate bits.)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
VLIW instructions still use the same operand B as regular instructions, only
 
 
 
there was no room for any instruction plus immediate addressing.  Therefore,
 
 
 
VLIW instructions have either
 
 
 
a register or a 4--bit signed immediate as their operand B.  The only exception
 
 
 
is the load immediate instruction, which permits a 5--bit signed operand
 
 
 
B.\footnote{Although the space exists to extend this VLIW load immediate
 
 
 
instruction to six bits, the 5--bit limit was chosen to simplify the
 
 
 
disassembler.  This may change in the future.}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Address Modes}\label{sec:isa-addr}
 
 
 
The ZipCPU supports two addressing modes: register plus immediate, and
 
 
 
immediate addressing.  Addresses are encoded in the same fashion as
 
 
 
Operand B's, discussed above.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The VLIW instruction set only offers register addressing.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Move Operands}\label{sec:isa-mov}
 
 
 
The previous set of operands would be perfect and complete, save only that the
 
 
 
CPU needs access to non--supervisory registers while in supervisory mode.  The
 
 
 
MOV instruction has been modified to fit that purpose.  The two bits,
 
 
 
shown as {\tt A} and {\tt B} in Fig.~\ref{fig:iset-format} above, are designed
 
 
 
to contain the high order bit of the 5--bit register index.  If the {\tt B}
 
 
 
bit is a `1', the source operand comes from the user register set.  If the
 
 
 
{\tt A} bit is a `1', the destination operand is in the user register set.  A
 
 
 
zero bit indicates the current register set.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This encoding has been chosen to keep the compiler simple.  For the most part,
 
 
 
the extra bits are quietly set to zero by the compiler.  Assembly instructions,
 
 
 
or particular built--in instructions, can be used to get access to these
 
 
 
cross register set move instructions.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Further, the {\tt MOV} instruction lacks the full OpB capability to use a
 
 
 
register or a register plus immediate as a source, since a load immediate
 
 
 
instruction already exists.  As a result, all moves come from a register plus a
 
 
 
potential offset.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Multiply Operations}\label{sec:isa-mpy}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The ZipCPU supports three separate 32x32-bit multiply
 
instructions: {\tt MPY}, {\tt MPYUHI}, and {\tt MPYSHI}.  The first of these
 
instructions: {\tt MPY}, {\tt MPYUHI}, and {\tt MPYSHI}.  The first of these
 
produces the low 32-bits of a 32x32-bit multiply result.  The second two
 
produces the low 32-bits of a 32x32-bit multiply result.  The second two
 
produce the upper 32-bits.  The first, {\tt MPYUHI}, produces the upper 32-bits
 
produce the upper 32-bits.  The first, {\tt MPYUHI}, produces the upper 32-bits
 
assuming the multiply was unsigned, whereas the second assuming it was signed.
 
assuming the multiply was unsigned, whereas {\tt MPYSHI} assumes it was signed.
 
Each multiply instruction is independent of each other in execution, although
 
Each multiply instruction is independent of every other in execution, although
 
the compiler may use them quite dependently.
 
the compiler is likely to use them in a dependent fashion.
 
 
 
 
 
In an effort to maintain single clock pipeline timing, all three of these
 
In an effort to maintain a fast clock speed, all three of these multiplies
 
multiplies have been slowed down in logic.  Thus, depending upon the setting
 
have been slowed down in logic.  Thus, depending upon the setting of
 
of {\tt OPT\_MULTIPLY} within {\tt cpudefs.v}, the multiply instructions
 
{\tt OPT\_MULTIPLY} within {\tt cpudefs.v}, or the corresponding
 
will either 1)~cause an ILLEGAL instruction error, 2)~take one additional clock,
 
{\tt IMPLEMENT\_MPY} parameter that may override it, the multiply instructions
 
or 3)~take two additional clocks.
 
will either 1)~cause an ILLEGAL instruction error ({\tt OPT\_MULTIPLY=0}, or
 
 
 
no multiply support), 2)~take one additional clock ({\tt OPT\_MULTIPLY=2}),
 
 
 
or 3)~take two additional clock cycles ({\tt OPT\_MULTIPLY=3}).\footnote{Support
 
\section{Divide Unit}
 
also exists for a one clock multiply (no clock slowdown), or a four clock
 
The Zip CPU also has a divide unit which can be built alongside the ALU.
 
multiply, and I am anticipating supporting a much longer multiply for FPGA
 
This divide unit provides the Zip CPU with another two instructions that
 
architectures with no accelerated hardware multiply support.}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Divide Unit}
 
 
 
The ZipCPU also has an optional divide unit which can be built alongside the
 
 
 
ALU.  This divide unit provides the ZipCPU with another two instructions that
 
cannot be executed in a single cycle: {\tt DIVS}, or signed divide, and
 
cannot be executed in a single cycle: {\tt DIVS}, or signed divide, and
 
{\tt DIVU}, the unsigned divide.  These are both 32--bit divide instructions,
 
{\tt DIVU}, the unsigned divide.  These are both 32--bit divide instructions,
 
dividing one 32--bit number by another.  In this case, the Operand B field,
 
dividing one 32--bit number by another.  In this case, the Operand B field,
 
whether it be register or register plus immediate, constitutes the denominator,
 
whether it be register or register plus immediate, constitutes the denominator,
 
whereas the numerator is given by the other register.
 
whereas the numerator is given by the other register.
 
 
 
 
 
The Divide is also a multi--clock instruction.  While the divide is running,
 
As with the multiply, the divide instructions are also a multi--clock
 
the ALU, any memory loads, and the floating point unit (if installed) will be
 
instructions.  While the divide is running, the ALU, any memory loads, and the
 
idle.  Once the divide completes, other units may continue.
 
floating point unit (if installed) will be idle.  Once the divide completes,
 
 
 
other units may continue.
 
Of course, divides can have errors: division by zero.  In the case of division
 
 
 
by zero, an exception will be caused that will send the CPU either from
 
Of course, any divide instruction can result in a division by zero exception.
 
user mode to supervisor mode, or halt the CPU if it is already in supervisor
 
If this happens the CPU will either suddenly transition from user mode to
 
mode.
 
supervisor mode, or it will halt if the CPU is already in supervisor mode.  Upon
 
 
 
exception, the divide by zero bit will be set in the CC register.  In the
 
 
 
case of a user mode divide by zero, this will be cleared by any return to user
 
 
 
mode command.  The supervisor bit may be cleared either by a reboot or by the
 
 
 
external debugger.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{NOOP, BREAK, and Bus Lock Instruction}
 
\subsection{NOOP, BREAK, and Bus LOCK Instruction}
 
Three instructions within the opcode list in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:iset-opcodes}, are
 
Three instructions within the opcode list in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:iset-opcodes}, are
 
somewhat special.  These are the {\tt NOOP}, {\tt Break}, and bus {\tt LOCK}
 
somewhat special.  These are the {\tt NOOP}, {\tt BREAK}, and bus {\tt LOCK}
 
instructions.  These are encoded according to
 
instructions.  These are encoded according to
 
Fig.~\ref{fig:iset-noop}, and have the following meanings:
 
Fig.~\ref{fig:iset-noop}.
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\begin{bytefield}[endianness=big]{32}
 
\begin{bytefield}[endianness=big]{32}
 
\bitheader{0-31}\\
 
\bitheader{0-31}\\
 
\begin{leftwordgroup}{NOOP}
 
\begin{leftwordgroup}{NOOP}
 
\bitbox{1}{0}\bitbox{3}{3'h7}\bitbox{1}{}
 
\bitbox{1}{0}\bitbox{3}{3'h7}\bitbox{1}{}
 
        \bitbox{2}{11}\bitbox{3}{000}\bitbox{22}{Ignored} \\
 
        \bitbox{2}{11}\bitbox{3}{000}\bitbox{22}{Reserved for Simulator} \\
 
\bitbox{1}{1}\bitbox{3}{3'h7}\bitbox{1}{}
 
\bitbox{1}{1}\bitbox{3}{3'h7}\bitbox{1}{}
 
        \bitbox{2}{11}\bitbox{3}{000}\bitbox{22}{---} \\
 
        \bitbox{2}{11}\bitbox{3}{000}\bitbox{22}{---} \\
 
\bitbox{1}{1}\bitbox{9}{---}\bitbox{3}{---}\bitbox{5}{---}
 
\bitbox{1}{1}\bitbox{9}{---}\bitbox{3}{---}\bitbox{5}{---}
 
        \bitbox{3}{3'h7}\bitbox{1}{}\bitbox{2}{11}\bitbox{3}{001}
 
        \bitbox{3}{3'h7}\bitbox{1}{}\bitbox{2}{11}\bitbox{3}{001}
 
        \bitbox{5}{Ignored}
 
        \bitbox{5}{Rsrvd}
 
                \end{leftwordgroup} \\
 
                \end{leftwordgroup} \\
 
\begin{leftwordgroup}{BREAK}
 
\begin{leftwordgroup}{BREAK}
 
\bitbox{1}{0}\bitbox{3}{3'h7}
 
\bitbox{1}{0}\bitbox{3}{3'h7}
 
                \bitbox{1}{}\bitbox{2}{11}\bitbox{3}{001}\bitbox{22}{Ignored}
 
                \bitbox{1}{}\bitbox{2}{11}\bitbox{3}{001}\bitbox{22}{Reserved for debugger}
 
                \end{leftwordgroup} \\
 
                \end{leftwordgroup} \\
 
\begin{leftwordgroup}{LOCK}
 
\begin{leftwordgroup}{LOCK}
 
\bitbox{1}{0}\bitbox{3}{3'h7}
 
\bitbox{1}{0}\bitbox{3}{3'h7}
 
                \bitbox{1}{}\bitbox{2}{11}\bitbox{3}{010}\bitbox{22}{Ignored}
 
                \bitbox{1}{}\bitbox{2}{11}\bitbox{3}{010}\bitbox{22}{Ignored}
 
                \end{leftwordgroup} \\
 
                \end{leftwordgroup} \\
 
\end{bytefield}
 
\end{bytefield}
 
\caption{NOOP/Break/LOCK Instruction Format}\label{fig:iset-noop}
 
\caption{NOOP/Break/LOCK Instruction Format}\label{fig:iset-noop}
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
 
 
 
 
The {\tt NOOP} instruction is just that: an instruction that does not perform
 
The {\tt NOOP} instruction is just that: an instruction that does not perform
 
any operation.  While many other instructions, such as a move from a register to
 
any operation.  While many other instructions, such as a move from a register
 
itself, could also fit these roles, only the NOOP instruction guarantees that
 
to itself, could also fit this role, only the NOOP instruction guarantees
 
it will not stall waiting for a register to be available.   For this reason,
 
that it will not stall waiting for a register to be available.   For this
 
it gets its own place in the instruction set.
 
reason, it gets its own place in the instruction set.  Bits 21--0 of this
 
 
 
instruction are reserved for commands which may be given to a simulator, such
 
 
 
as simulator exit, should the code be run from a simulator.  However, such
 
 
 
simulation codes have not yet been defined.
 
 
 
 
 
The {\tt BREAK} instruction is useful for creating a debug instruction that
 
The {\tt BREAK} instruction is useful for creating a debug instruction that
 
will halt the CPU without executing.  If in user mode, depending upon the
 
will halt the CPU without executing.  If in user mode, depending upon the
 
setting of the break enable bit, it will either switch to supervisor mode or
 
setting of the break enable bit, it will either switch to supervisor mode or
 
halt the CPU--depending upon where the user wishes to do his debugging.
 
halt the CPU--depending upon where the user wishes to do his debugging.  The
 
 
 
lower 22~bits of this instruction are likewise reserved for the debuggers
 
 
 
use.
 
 
 
 
 
Finally, the {\tt LOCK} instruction was added in order to provide for
 
Finally, the {\tt LOCK} instruction was added in order to provide for
 
atomic operations.  The {\tt LOCK} instruction only works in pipeline mode.
 
atomic operations.  The {\tt LOCK} instruction only works when the CPU is
 
It works by stalling the ALU pipeline stack until all prior stages are
 
configured for pipeline mode.  It works by stalling the ALU pipeline stack
 
filled, and then it guarantees that once a bus cycle is started, the
 
until all prior stages are filled, and then it guarantees that once a bus
 
wishbone {\tt CYC} line will remain asserted until the LOCK is deasserted.
 
cycle is started, the wishbone {\tt CYC} line will remain asserted until the
 
This allows the execution of one instruction that was waiting in the load
 
LOCK is deasserted.  This allows the execution of three instructions, one
 
operands pipeline stage, and one instruction that was waiting in the
 
memory (ex. {\tt LOD}), one ALU (ex. {\tt ADD}), and another memory instruction
 
instruction decode stage.  Further, if the instruction waiting in the decode
 
(ex. {\tt STO}), to take place in an unbreakable fashion.  Example uses of this
 
stage was a VLIW instruction, then it may be possible to execute a third
 
capability include an atomic increment, such as {\tt LOCK}, {\tt LOD (Rx),Ry},
 
instruction.
 
{\tt ADD \#,Ry}, and then {\tt STO Ry,(Rx)}, or even a two instruction pair
 
 
 
such as a test and set sequence: {\tt LDI 1,Rz}, {\tt LOCK}, {\tt LOD (Rx),Ry},
 
This was originally written to implement an atomic test and set instruction,
 
{\tt STO Rz,(Rx)}.
 
such as a {\tt LOCK} followed by {\tt LOD (Rx),Ry} and a {\tt STO Rz,(Rx)},
 
 
 
where Rz is initially set.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Other instructions using a VLIW instruction combining a single ALU instruction
 
 
 
with a store, such as an atomic increment, or {\tt LOCK}, {\tt LOD (Rx),Ry},
 
 
 
{\tt ADD 1,Ry}, {\tt STO Ry,(Rx)}, should be possible as well.  Many of these
 
 
 
combinations remain to be tested.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Floating Point}
 
\subsection{Floating Point}
 
Although the Zip CPU does not (yet) have a floating point unit, the current
 
Although the Zip CPU does not (yet) have a floating point unit, the current
 
instruction set offers eight opcodes for floating point operations, and treats
 
instruction set offers eight opcodes for floating point operations, and treats
 
floating point exceptions like divide by zero errors.  Once this unit is built
 
floating point exceptions like divide by zero errors.  Once this unit is built
 
and integrated together with the rest of the CPU, the Zip CPU will support
 
and integrated together with the rest of the CPU, the Zip CPU will support
 
32--bit floating point instructions natively.  Any 64--bit floating point
 
32--bit floating point instructions natively.  Any 64--bit floating point
 
instructions will still need to be emulated in software.
 
instructions will either need to be emulated in software, or else they will
 
 
 
need an external floating point peripheral.
 
 
 
 
 
Until that time, of even after if the floating point unit is not installed,
 
Until the FPU is built and integrated, of even afterwards if the floating point
 
floating point instructions will trigger an illegal instruction exception,
 
unit is not installed by option, floating point instructions will trigger an
 
which may be trapped and then implemented in software.
 
illegal instruction exception, which may be trapped and then implemented in
 
 
 
software.
 
\section{Derived Instructions}
 
 
 
The Zip CPU supports many other common instructions, but not all of them
 
\subsection{Load/Store byte}
 
are single cycle instructions.  The derived instruction tables,
 
One difference between the ZipCPU and many other architectures is that there are
 
Tbls.~\ref{tbl:derived-1}, \ref{tbl:derived-2}, \ref{tbl:derived-3}
 
no load byte {\tt LB}, store byte {\tt SB}, load halfword {\tt LH} or store
 
and~\ref{tbl:derived-4},
 
halfword {\tt SH} instructions.  This lack is by design in an attempt to keep
 
help to capture some of how these other instructions may be implemented on
 
the 32--bit bus simple.
 
the Zip CPU.  Many of these instructions will have assembly equivalents,
 
 
 
 
 
Because the ZipCPU's addresses refer to 32--bit values, i.e. address one
 
 
 
will refer to a completely different 32--bit value than address two, simulating
 
 
 
these load and store byte instructions is difficult.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This is just the nature of the ZipCPU, as a result of the design choices that
 
 
 
were made.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Derived Instructions}
 
 
 
The ZipCPU supports many other common instructions by construction, although
 
 
 
not all of them are single cycle instructions.  Tables~\ref{tbl:derived-1}, \ref{tbl:derived-2}, \ref{tbl:derived-3} and~\ref{tbl:derived-4} show how these
 
 
 
other instructions may be implemented on the ZipCPU.  Many of these
 
 
 
instructions will have assembly equivalents,
 
such as the branch instructions, to facilitate working with the CPU.
 
such as the branch instructions, to facilitate working with the CPU.
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabular}{p{1.4in}p{1.5in}p{3in}}\\\hline
 
\begin{tabular}{p{1.4in}p{1.5in}p{3in}}\\\hline
 
Mapped & Actual  & Notes \\\hline
 
Mapped & Actual  & Notes \\\hline
 
{\tt ABS Rx}
 
{\tt ABS Rx}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt TST -1,Rx\\NEG.LT Rx}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt TST -1,Rx\\NEG.LT Rx}
 
        & Absolute value, depends upon derived NEG.\\\hline
 
        & Absolute value, depends upon the derived {\tt NEG} instruction
 
 
 
        below, and so this expands into three instructions total.\\\hline
 
\parbox[t]{1.4in}{\tt ADD Ra,Rx\\ADDC Rb,Ry}
 
\parbox[t]{1.4in}{\tt ADD Ra,Rx\\ADDC Rb,Ry}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt Add Ra,Rx\\ADD.C \$1,Ry\\Add Rb,Ry}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt Add Ra,Rx\\ADD.C \$1,Ry\\Add Rb,Ry}
 
        & Add with carry \\\hline
 
        & Add with carry \\\hline
 
{\tt BRA.Cond +/-\$Addr}
 
{\tt BRA.$x$ +/-\$Addr}
 
        & \hbox{\tt ADD.cond \$Addr+PC,PC}
 
        & \hbox{\tt ADD.$x$ \$Addr+PC,PC}
 
        & Branch or jump on condition.  Works for 18--bit
 
        & Branch or jump on condition $x$.  Works for 18--bit
 
                signed address offsets.\\\hline
 
                signed address offsets.\\\hline
 
{\tt BRA.Cond +/-\$Addr}
 
% {\tt BRA.Cond +/-\$Addr}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LDI \$Addr,Rx \\ ADD.cond Rx,PC}
 
%       & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LDI \$Addr,Rx \\ ADD.cond Rx,PC}
 
        & Branch/jump on condition.  Works for 23 bit address offsets, but
 
%       & Branch/jump on condition.  Works for 23 bit address offsets, but
 
        costs a register and an extra instruction.  With LDIHI and LDILO
 
%       costs a register and an extra instruction.  With LDIHI and LDILO
 
        this can be made to work anywhere in the 32-bit address space, but yet
 
%       this can be made to work anywhere in the 32-bit address space, but yet
 
        cost an additional instruction still. \\\hline
 
%       cost an additional instruction still. \\\hline
 
{\tt BNC PC+\$Addr}
 
% {\tt BNC PC+\$Addr}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt Test \$Carry,CC \\ ADD.Z PC+\$Addr,PC}
 
%       & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt Test \$Carry,CC \\ ADD.Z PC+\$Addr,PC}
 
        & Example of a branch on an unsupported
 
%       & Example of a branch on an unsupported
 
                condition, in this case a branch on not carry \\\hline
 
%               condition, in this case a branch on not carry \\\hline
 
{\tt BUSY } & {\tt ADD \$-1,PC} & Execute an infinite loop \\\hline
 
{\tt BUSY } & {\tt ADD \$-1,PC} & Execute an infinite loop.  This is used
 
 
 
        within ZipCPU simulations as the execute simulation on error
 
 
 
        instruction. \\\hline
 
{\tt CLRF.NZ Rx }
 
{\tt CLRF.NZ Rx }
 
        & {\tt XOR.NZ Rx,Rx}
 
        & {\tt XOR.NZ Rx,Rx}
 
        & Clear Rx, and flags, if the Z-bit is not set \\\hline
 
        & Clear Rx, and flags, if the Z-bit is not set \\\hline
 
{\tt CLR Rx }
 
{\tt CLR Rx }
 
        & {\tt LDI \$0,Rx}
 
        & {\tt LDI \$0,Rx}
 
        & Clears Rx, leaves flags untouched.  This instruction cannot be
 
        & Clears Rx, leaving the flags untouched.  This instruction cannot be
 
                conditional. \\\hline
 
                conditional. \\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt CLR.NZ Rx }
 
 
 
        & {\tt BREV.NZ \$0,Rx}
 
 
 
        & Clears Rx, leaving the flags untouched.  This instruction can be
 
 
 
                executed conditionally. The assembler will quietly  choose
 
 
 
                between {\tt LDI} and {\tt BREV} depending upon the existence
 
 
 
                of the condition.\\\hline
 
{\tt EXCH.W Rx }
 
{\tt EXCH.W Rx }
 
        & {\tt ROL \$16,Rx}
 
        & {\tt ROL \$16,Rx}
 
        & Exchanges the top and bottom 16'bit words of Rx \\\hline
 
        & Exchanges the top and bottom 16'bit words of Rx \\\hline
 
{\tt HALT }
 
{\tt HALT }
 
        & {\tt Or \$SLEEP,CC}
 
        & {\tt Or \$SLEEP,CC}
 
        & This only works when issued in interrupt/supervisor mode.  In user
 
        & This only works when issued in interrupt/supervisor mode.  In user
 
        mode this is simply a wait until interrupt instruction. \\\hline
 
        mode this is simply a wait until interrupt instruction.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        This is also used within the simulator as an exit simulation on
 
 
 
        success instruction.\\\hline
 
{\tt INT } & {\tt LDI \$0,CC} & This is also known as a trap instruction\\\hline
 
{\tt INT } & {\tt LDI \$0,CC} & This is also known as a trap instruction\\\hline
 
{\tt IRET}
 
{\tt IRET}
 
        & {\tt OR \$GIE,CC}
 
        & {\tt OR \$GIE,CC}
 
        & Also known as an RTU instruction (Return to Userspace) \\\hline
 
        & Also known as an RTU instruction (Return to Userspace) \\\hline
 
{\tt JMP R6+\$Offset}
 
{\tt JMP R6+\$Offset}
 
        & {\tt MOV \$Offset(R6),PC}
 
        & {\tt MOV \$Offset(R6),PC}
 
        & \\\hline
 
        & Only works for 13--bit offsets.  Other offsets require adding the
 
 
 
        offset first to R6 before jumping.\\\hline
 
{\tt LJMP \$Addr}
 
{\tt LJMP \$Addr}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LOD (PC),PC \\ {\em Address }}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LOD (PC),PC \\ {\em Address }}
 
        & Although this only works for an unconditional jump, and it only
 
        & Although this only works for an unconditional jump, and it only
 
        works in a Von Neumann architecture, this instruction combination makes
 
        works in an architecture with a unified instruction and data address
 
        for a nice combination that can be adjusted by a linker at a later
 
        space, this instruction combination makes for a nice combination that
 
        time.\\\hline
 
        can be adjusted by a linker at a later time.\\\hline
 
{\tt JSR PC+\$Offset  }
 
{\tt LJMP.x \$Addr}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt MOV \$1+PC,R0 \\ ADD \$Offset,PC}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LOD.x 2(PC),PC \\ ADD 1,PC \\ {\em Address }}
 
        & This is similar to the jump and link instructions from other
 
        & Long jump, works for a conditional long jump.  \\\hline
 
        architectures, save only that it requires a specific link
 
 
 
        instruction, also known as the {\tt MOV} instruction on the
 
 
 
        left.\\\hline
 
 
 
\end{tabular}
 
\end{tabular}
 
\caption{Derived Instructions}\label{tbl:derived-1}
 
\caption{Derived Instructions}\label{tbl:derived-1}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabular}{p{1.4in}p{1.5in}p{3in}}\\\hline
 
\begin{tabular}{p{1.1in}p{1.8in}p{3in}}\\\hline
 
Mapped & Actual  & Notes \\\hline
 
Mapped & Actual  & Notes \\\hline
 
{\tt LDI.l \$val,Rx }
 
{\tt LJSR \$Addr  }
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.8in}{\tt LDIHI (\$val$>>$16)\&0x0ffff, Rx \\
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt MOV \$2+PC,R0 \\ LOD (PC),PC \\ {\em Address}}
 
                        LDILO (\$val\&0x0ffff),Rx}
 
        & Similar to LJMP, but it handles the return address properly.
 
 
 
        \\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt JSR PC+\$Offset  }
 
 
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt MOV \$1+PC,R0 \\ ADD \$Offset,PC}
 
 
 
        & This is similar to the jump and link instructions from other
 
 
 
        architectures, save only that it requires a specific link
 
 
 
        instruction, seen here as the {\tt MOV} instruction on the
 
 
 
        left.\\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt LDI \$val,Rx }
 
 
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.8in}{\tt BREV REV($val$)\&0x0ffff, Rx \\
 
 
 
                        LDILO ($val$\&0x0ffff),Rx}
 
        & \parbox[t]{3.0in}{Sadly, there's not enough instruction
 
        & \parbox[t]{3.0in}{Sadly, there's not enough instruction
 
                space to load a complete immediate value into any register.
 
                space to load a complete immediate value into any register.
 
                Therefore, fully loading any register takes two cycles.
 
                Therefore, fully loading any register takes two cycles.
 
                The LDIHI (load immediate high) and LDILO (load immediate low)
 
                The {\tt LDILO} (load immediate low) instruction has been
 
                instructions have been created to facilitate this.
 
                created to facilitate this together with {\tt BREV}.
 
                \\
 
                \\
 
        This is also the appropriate means for setting a register value
 
        This is also the appropriate means for setting a register value
 
        to an arbitrary 32--bit value in a post--assembly link
 
        to an arbitrary 32--bit value in a post--assembly link
 
        operation.}\\\hline
 
        operation.}\\\hline
 
{\tt LOD.b \$addr,Rx}
 
{\tt LOD.b \$addr,Rx}
Line 1229... Line 1342... 
        OR.C \$1,Ry}
 
        OR.C \$1,Ry}
 
        & Logical shift left with carry.  Note that the
 
        & Logical shift left with carry.  Note that the
 
        instruction order is now backwards, to keep the conditions valid.
 
        instruction order is now backwards, to keep the conditions valid.
 
        That is, LSL sets the carry flag, so if we did this the other way
 
        That is, LSL sets the carry flag, so if we did this the other way
 
        with Rx before Ry, then the condition flag wouldn't have been right
 
        with Rx before Ry, then the condition flag wouldn't have been right
 
        for an OR correction at the end. \\\hline
 
        for an {\tt OR} correction at the end. \\\hline
 
\parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LSR \$1,Rx \\ LSRC \$1,Ry}
 
\parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LSR \$1,Rx \\ LSRC \$1,Ry}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt CLR Rz \\
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt CLR Rz \\
 
        LSR \$1,Ry \\
 
        LSR \$1,Ry \\
 
        LDIHI.C \$8000h,Rz \\
 
        BREV.C \$1,Rz \\
 
        LSR \$1,Rx \\
 
        LSR \$1,Rx \\
 
        OR Rz,Rx}
 
        OR Rz,Rx}
 
        & Logical shift right with carry \\\hline
 
        & Logical shift right with carry.  Unlike the shift left, this
 
{\tt NEG Rx} & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt XOR \$-1,Rx \\ ADD \$1,Rx} & \\\hline
 
        approach doesn't extend well to numbers larger than two words. \\\hline
 
{\tt NEG.C Rx} & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt MOV.C \$-1+Rx,Rx\\XOR.C \$-1,Rx} & \\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt NOOP} & {\tt NOOP} & While there are many
 
 
 
        operations that do nothing, such as MOV Rx,Rx, or OR \$0,Rx, these
 
 
 
        operations have consequences in that they might stall the bus if
 
 
 
        Rx isn't ready yet.  For this reason, we have a dedicated NOOP
 
 
 
        instruction. \\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt NOT Rx } & {\tt XOR \$-1,Rx } & \\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt POP Rx }
 
 
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LOD \$(SP),Rx \\ ADD \$1,SP}
 
 
 
        & \\\hline
 
 
 
\end{tabular}
 
\end{tabular}
 
\caption{Derived Instructions, continued}\label{tbl:derived-2}
 
\caption{Derived Instructions, continued}\label{tbl:derived-2}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabular}{p{1.4in}p{1.5in}p{3in}}\\\hline
 
\begin{tabular}{p{1.2in}p{1.5in}p{3.2in}}\\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt NEG Rx} & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt XOR \$-1,Rx \\ ADD \$1,Rx} & Negates Rx\\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt NEG.C Rx} & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt MOV.C \$-1+Rx,Rx\\XOR.C \$-1,Rx}
 
 
 
        & Conditionally negates Rx\\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt NOT Rx } & {\tt XOR \$-1,Rx } & One's complement\\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt POP Rx }
 
 
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LOD \$(SP),Rx \\ ADD \$1,SP}
 
 
 
        & The compiler avoids the need for this instruction and the similar
 
 
 
        {\tt PUSH} instruction when setting up the stack by coalescing all
 
 
 
        the stack address modifications into a single instruction at the
 
 
 
        beginning of any stack frame.\\\hline
 
{\tt PUSH Rx}
 
{\tt PUSH Rx}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\hbox{\tt SUB \$1,SP}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\hbox{\tt SUB \$1,SP}
 
        \hbox{\tt STO Rx,\$(SP)}}
 
        \hbox{\tt STO Rx,\$(SP)}}
 
        & Note that for pipelined operation, it helps to coalesce all the
 
        & Note that for pipelined operation, it helps to coalesce all the
 
        {\tt SUB}'s into one command, and place the {\tt STO}'s right
 
        {\tt SUB}'s into one command, and place the {\tt STO}'s right
 
        after each other.  Further, to avoid a pipeline stall, the
 
        after each other.  Further, to avoid a pipeline stall, the
 
        immediate value for the store must be zero.
 
        immediate value for the first store must be zero.
 
        \\\hline
 
        \\\hline
 
{\tt PUSH Rx-Ry}
 
{\tt PUSH Rx-Ry}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt SUB \$$n$,SP \\
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt SUB \$$n$,SP \\
 
        STO Rx,\$(SP)
 
        STO Rx,\$(SP)
 
        \ldots \\
 
        \ldots \\
 
        STO Ry,\$$\left(n-1\right)$(SP)}
 
        STO Ry,\$$\left(n-1\right)$(SP)}
 
        & Multiple pushes at once only need the single subtract from the
 
        & Multiple pushes at once only need the single subtract from the
 
        stack pointer.  This derived instruction is analogous to a similar one
 
        stack pointer.  This derived instruction is analogous to a similar one
 
        on the Motoroloa 68k architecture, although the Zip Assembler
 
        on the Motorola 68k architecture, although the Zip Assembler
 
        does not support this instruction (yet).  This instruction
 
        does not support the combined instruction.  This instruction
 
        also supports pipelined memory access.\\\hline
 
        also supports pipelined memory access.\\\hline
 
{\tt RESET}
 
{\tt RESET}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1in}{\tt STO \$1,\$watchdog(R12)\\NOOP\\NOOP}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1in}{\tt STO \$1,\$watchdog(R12)\\BUSY}
 
        & This depends upon the peripheral base address being
 
        & This depends upon the existence of a watchdog peripheral, and the
 
        preloaded into R12.
 
        peripheral base address being preloaded into {\tt R12}.  The BUSY
 
 
 
        instructions are required because the CPU will continue until the
 
 
 
        {\tt STO} has completed.
 
 
 
 
 
        Another opportunity might be to jump to the reset address from within
 
        Another opportunity might be to jump to the reset address from within
 
        supervisor mode.\\\hline
 
        supervisor mode.\\\hline
 
{\tt RET} & {\tt MOV R0,PC}
 
{\tt RET} & {\tt MOV R0,PC}
 
        & This depends upon the form of the {\tt JSR} given on the previous
 
        & This depends upon the form of the {\tt JSR} given on the previous
 
        page that stores the return address into R0.
 
        page that stores the return address into R0.
 
        \\\hline
 
        \\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt SEX.b Rx }
 
 
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LSL 24,Rx \\ ASR 24,Rx}
 
 
 
        & Signed extend an 8--bit value into a full word.\\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt SEX.h Rx }
 
 
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LSL 16,Rx \\ ASR 16,Rx}
 
 
 
        & Sign extend a 16--bit value into a full word.\\\hline
 
{\tt STEP Rr,Rt}
 
{\tt STEP Rr,Rt}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LSR \$1,Rr \\ XOR.C Rt,Rr}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LSR \$1,Rr \\ XOR.C Rt,Rr}
 
        & Step a Galois implementation of a Linear Feedback Shift Register, Rr,
 
        & Step a Galois implementation of a Linear Feedback Shift Register, Rr,
 
                using taps Rt \\\hline
 
                using taps Rt \\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt STEP}
 
 
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt OR \$Step|\$GIE,CC}
 
 
 
        & Steps a user mode process by one instruction\\\hline
 
%
 
%
 
%
 
%
 
{\tt SEX.b Rx }
 
\end{tabular}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LSL 24,Rx \\ ASR 24,Rx}
 
\caption{Derived Instructions, continued}\label{tbl:derived-3}
 
        & Signed extend a byte into a full word.\\\hline
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
{\tt SEX.h Rx }
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LSL 16,Rx \\ ASR 16,Rx}
 
\begin{tabular}{p{1.4in}p{1.5in}p{3in}}\\\hline
 
        & Sign extend a half word into a full word.\\\hline
 
 
 
%
 
 
 
{\tt STO.b Rx,\$addr}
 
{\tt STO.b Rx,\$addr}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt %
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt %
 
        LDI \$addr,Ra \\
 
        LDI \$addr,Ra \\
 
        LDI \$addr,Rb \\
 
        LDI \$addr,Rb \\
 
        LSR \$2,Ra \\
 
        LSR \$2,Ra \\
Line 1308... Line 1430... 
        AND \$0ffh,Rx \\
 
        AND \$0ffh,Rx \\
 
        AND \~\$0ffh,Ry \\
 
        AND \~\$0ffh,Ry \\
 
        ROL Rb,Rx \\
 
        ROL Rb,Rx \\
 
        OR Rx,Ry \\
 
        OR Rx,Ry \\
 
        STO Ry,(Ra) }
 
        STO Ry,(Ra) }
 
        & \parbox[t]{3in}{This CPU and it's bus are {\em not} optimized
 
        & \parbox[t]{3in}{This CPU and its bus are {\em not} optimized
 
        for byte-wise operations.
 
        for byte-wise operations.
 
 
 
 
 
        Note that in this example, \$addr is a
 
        Note that in this example, \$addr is a
 
        byte-wise address, whereas in all of our other examples it is a
 
        byte-wise address, whereas in all of our other examples it is a
 
        32-bit word address. This also limits the address space
 
        32-bit word address. This also limits the address space
 
        of character accesses from 16 MB down to 4MB.F
 
        of character accesses from 16 MB down to 4MB.
 
        Further, this instruction implies a byte ordering,
 
        Further, this instruction implies a byte ordering,
 
        such as big or little endian.} \\\hline
 
        such as big or little endian.} \\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt SUBR Rx,Ry }
 
 
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt SUB 1+Rx,Ry\\ XOR -1,Ry}
 
 
 
        & Ry is set to Rx-Ry, rather than the normal subtract which
 
 
 
        sets Ry to Ry-Rx. \\\hline
 
 
 
\parbox[t]{1.4in}{\tt SUB Ra,Rx\\SUBC Rb,Ry}
 
 
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt SUB Ra,Rx\\SUB.C \$1,Ry\\SUB Rb,Ry}
 
 
 
        & Subtract with carry.  Note that the overflow flag may not be
 
 
 
        set correctly after this operation.\\\hline
 
{\tt SWAP Rx,Ry }
 
{\tt SWAP Rx,Ry }
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt XOR Ry,Rx \\ XOR Rx,Ry \\ XOR Ry,Rx}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt XOR Ry,Rx \\ XOR Rx,Ry \\ XOR Ry,Rx}
 
        & While no extra registers are needed, this example
 
        & While no extra registers are needed, this example
 
        does take 3-clocks. \\\hline
 
        does take 3-clocks. \\\hline
 
\end{tabular}
 
 
 
\caption{Derived Instructions, continued}\label{tbl:derived-3}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabular}{p{1.4in}p{1.5in}p{3in}}\\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt TRAP \#X}
 
{\tt TRAP \#X}
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LDI \$x,R0 \\ AND \~\$GIE,CC }
 
        & \parbox[t]{1.5in}{\tt LDI \$x,R1 \\ AND \textasciitilde\$GIE,CC }
 
        & This works because whenever a user lowers the \$GIE flag, it sets
 
        & This works because whenever a user lowers the \$GIE flag, it sets
 
        a TRAP bit within the CC register.  Therefore, upon entering the
 
        a TRAP bit within the uCC register.  Therefore, upon entering the
 
        supervisor state, the CPU only need check this bit to know that it
 
        supervisor state, the CPU only need check this bit to know that it
 
        got there via a TRAP.  The trap could be made conditional by making
 
        got there via a TRAP.  The trap could be made conditional by making
 
        the LDI and the AND conditional.  In that case, the assembler would
 
        the LDI and the AND conditional.  In that case, the assembler would
 
        quietly turn the LDI instruction into an LDILO and LDIHI pair,
 
        quietly turn the LDI instruction into a {\tt BREV}/{\tt LDILO} pair,
 
        but the effect would be the same. \\\hline
 
        but the effect would be the same. \\\hline
 
{\tt TS Rx,Ry,(Rz)}
 
{\tt TS Rx,Ry,(Rz)}
 
        & \hbox{\tt LDI 1,Rx}
 
        & \hbox{\tt LDI 1,Rx}
 
                \hbox{\tt LOCK}
 
                \hbox{\tt LOCK}
 
                \hbox{\tt LOD (Rz),Ry}
 
                \hbox{\tt LOD (Rz),Ry}
Line 1347... Line 1472... 
        so no one else can use it.  Thus guarantees that the operation is
 
        so no one else can use it.  Thus guarantees that the operation is
 
        atomic.
 
        atomic.
 
        \\\hline
 
        \\\hline
 
{\tt TST Rx}
 
{\tt TST Rx}
 
        & {\tt TST \$-1,Rx}
 
        & {\tt TST \$-1,Rx}
 
        & Set the condition codes based upon Rx.  Could also do a CMP \$0,Rx,
 
        & Set the condition codes based upon Rx without changing Rx.
 
        ADD \$0,Rx, SUB \$0,Rx, etc, AND \$-1,Rx, etc.  The TST and CMP
 
        Equivalent to a CMP \$0,Rx.\\\hline
 
        approaches won't stall future pipeline stages looking for the value
 
 
 
        of Rx. (Future versions of the assembler may shorten this to a
 
 
 
        {\tt TST Rx} instruction.)\\\hline
 
 
 
{\tt WAIT}
 
{\tt WAIT}
 
        & {\tt Or \$GIE | \$SLEEP,CC}
 
        & {\tt Or \$GIE | \$SLEEP,CC}
 
        & Wait until the next interrupt, then jump to supervisor/interrupt
 
        & Wait until the next interrupt, then jump to supervisor/interrupt
 
        mode.
 
        mode.
 
\end{tabular}
 
\end{tabular}
 
\caption{Derived Instructions, continued}\label{tbl:derived-4}
 
\caption{Derived Instructions, continued}\label{tbl:derived-4}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Interrupt Handling}
 
\subsection{Interrupt Handling}
 
The Zip CPU does not maintain any interrupt vector tables.  If an interrupt
 
The Zip CPU does not maintain any interrupt vector tables.  If an interrupt
 
takes place, the CPU simply switches to interrupt mode.  The supervisor code
 
takes place, the CPU simply switches to from user to supervisor (interrupt)
 
continues in this interrupt mode from where it left off before, after
 
mode.  The supervisor code then continues from where it left off after
 
executing a return to userspace {\tt RTU} instruction.
 
executing a return to userspace {\tt RTU} instruction.
 
 
 
 
 
At this point, the supervisor code needs to determine first whether an
 
Since the CPU may return from userspace after either an interrupt, a
 
interrupt has occurred, and then whether it is in interrupt mode due to
 
trap, or an exception, it is up to the supervisor code that handles the
 
an exception and handle each case appropriately.
 
transition to determine which of the three has taken place.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Pipeline Stages}
 
\subsection{Pipeline Stages}
 
As mentioned in the introduction, and highlighted in Fig.~\ref{fig:cpu},
 
As mentioned in the introduction, and highlighted in Fig.~\ref{fig:cpu},
 
the Zip CPU supports a five stage pipeline.
 
the Zip CPU supports a five stage pipeline.
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
\item {\bf Prefetch}: Reads instruction from memory and into a cache, if so
 
\item {\bf Prefetch}: Reads instructions from memory.  If the CPU has been
 
        configured.  This
 
        configured with a cache, the cache has been integrated into the
 
        stage is actually pipelined itself, and so it will stall if the PC
 
        prefetch.  Stalls are also created here if the instruction isn't
 
        ever changes.  Stalls are also created here if the instruction isn't
 
 
 
        in the prefetch cache.
 
        in the prefetch cache.
 
 
 
 
 
        The Zip CPU supports one of three prefetch methods, depending upon a
 
        The ZipCPU supports one of three prefetch methods, depending upon the
 
        flag set at build time within the {\tt cpudefs.v} file.  The simplest
 
        flags set at build time within the {\tt cpudefs.v} file.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        The simplest
 
        is a non--cached implementation of a prefetch.  This implementation is
 
        is a non--cached implementation of a prefetch.  This implementation is
 
        fairly small, and ideal for users of the Zip CPU who need the extra
 
        fairly small, and ideal for users of the Zip CPU who need the extra
 
        space on the FPGA fabric.  However, because this non--cached version
 
        space on the FPGA fabric.  However, because this non--cached version
 
        has no cache, the maximum number of instructions per clock is limited
 
        has no cache, the maximum number of instructions per clock is limited
 
        to about one per five.
 
        to about one per eight--depending upon the bus/memory delay.
 
 
 
        This prefetch option is set by leaving the {\tt OPT\_SINGLE\_FETCH}
 
        The second prefetch module is a pipelined prefetch with a cache.  This
 
        line uncommented within the {\tt cpudefs.v} file.  Using this option
 
        module tries to keep the instruction address within a window of valid
 
        will also turn off the ZipCPU pipeline.
 
        instruction addresses.  While effective, it is not a traditional
 
 
 
        cache implementation.  One unique feature of this cache implementation,
 
        The second prefetch module is a non--traditional pipelined prefetch
 
        however, is that it can be cleared in a single clock.  A disappointing
 
        with a cache.  This module tries to keep the instruction address
 
        feature, though, was that it needs an extra internal pipeline stage
 
        within a window of valid instruction addresses.  While effective, it
 
 
 
        is not a traditional cache implementation.  A disappointing feature of
 
 
 
        this implementation is that it needs an extra internal pipeline stage
 
        to be implemented.
 
        to be implemented.
 
 
 
 
 
        The third prefetch and cache module implements a more traditional cache.
 
        The third prefetch and cache module implements a more traditional
 
        While the resulting code tends to be twice as fast as the pipelined
 
        cache.  This cache provides for the fastest CPU speed.  The only
 
        cache architecture, this implementation uses a large amount of
 
        drawback is that, when a cache line is loading, the CPU will be stalled
 
        distributed FPGA RAM to be successful.  This then inflates the Zip CPU's
 
        until the cache is completely loaded.
 
        FPGA usage statistics.
 
 
 
 
 
\item {\bf Decode}: Decodes an instruction into it's OpCode, register(s) to
 
\item {\bf Decode}: Decodes an instruction into OpCode, register(s) to read,
 
        read, condition code, and immediate offset.  This stage also
 
        and immediate offset.  This stage also determines whether the flags
 
        determines whether the flags will be read or set, whether registers
 
        will be set or whether the result will be written back.
 
        will be read (and hence the pipeline may need to stall), or whether the
 
 
 
        result will be written back.  In many ways, simplifying the CPU also
 
\item {\bf Read Operands}: Read registers and apply any immediate values to
 
        meant simplifying this pipeline stage and hence the instruction set
 
        them.  There is no means of detecting or flagging arithmetic overflow
 
        architecture.
 
        or carry when adding the immediate to the operand.  This stage will
 
 
 
        stall if any source operand is pending.
 
\item {\bf Read Operands}: Read from the register file and applies any
 
 
 
        immediate values to the result.  There is no means of detecting or
 
\item Split into one of four tracks: An {\bf ALU} track which will accomplish
 
        flagging arithmetic overflow or carry when adding the immediate to the
 
        a simple instruction, the {\bf MemOps} stage which handles {\tt LOD}
 
        operand.  This stage will stall if any source operand is pending
 
        (load) and {\tt STO} (store) instructions, the {\bf divide} unit,
 
        and the immediate value is non--zero.
 
        and the {\bf floating point} unit.
 
 
 
 
 
\item At this point, the processing flow splits into one of four tracks: An
 
 
 
        {\bf ALU} track which will accomplish a simple instruction, the
 
 
 
        {\bf MemOps} stage which handles {\tt LOD} (load) and {\tt STO}
 
 
 
        (store) instructions, the {\bf divide} unit, and the
 
 
 
        {\bf floating point} unit.
 
        \begin{itemize}
 
        \begin{itemize}
 
        \item Loads will stall instructions in the decode stage until the
 
        \item Loads will stall instructions in the read operands stage until the
 
                entire pipeline until complete, lest a register be read in
 
                entire memory is complete, lest a register be read only to be
 
                the read operands stage only to be updated unseen by the
 
                updated unseen by the Load.
 
                Load.
 
        \item Condition codes are set upon completion of the ALU, divide,
 
        \item Condition codes are available upon completion of the ALU,
 
                or FPU stage.  (Memory operations do not set conditions.)
 
                divide, or FPU stage.
 
 
 
        \item Issuing a non--pipelined memory instruction to the memory unit
 
        \item Issuing a non--pipelined memory instruction to the memory unit
 
                while the memory unit is busy will stall the entire pipeline.
 
                while the memory unit is busy will stall the entire pipeline
 
 
 
                until the memory unit is idle and ready to accept another
 
 
 
                instruction.
 
        \end{itemize}
 
        \end{itemize}
 
\item {\bf Write-Back}: Conditionally write back the result to the register
 
\item {\bf Write-Back}: Conditionally write back the result to the register
 
        set, applying the condition.  This routine is quad-entrant: either the
 
        set, applying the condition and any special CC logic.  This routine is
 
        ALU, the memory, the divide, or the FPU may write back a register.
 
        quad-entrant: either the ALU, the memory, the divide, or the FPU may
 
        The only design rule is that no more than a single register may be
 
        commit a result.  The only design rule is that no more than a single
 
        written back in any given clock.
 
        register may be written in any given clock cycle.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        This is also the stage where any special condition code logic takes
 
 
 
        place.
 
\end{enumerate}
 
\end{enumerate}
 
 
 
 
 
The Zip CPU does not support out of order execution.  Therefore, if the memory
 
The Zip CPU does not support out of order execution.  Therefore, if the memory
 
unit stalls, every other instruction stalls.  The same is true for divide or
 
unit stalls, every other instruction stalls.  The same is true for divide or
 
floating point instructions--all other instructions will stall while waiting
 
floating point instructions--all other instructions will stall while waiting
 
for these to complete.  Memory stores, however, can take place concurrently
 
for these to complete.  Memory stores, however, can take place concurrently
 
with non--memory operations, although memory reads (loads) cannot.
 
with non--memory operations, although memory reads (loads) cannot.  This is
 
 
 
likely to change with the integration of an memory management unit (MMU), in which case a store
 
 
 
instruction must stall the CPU until it is known whether or not the store
 
 
 
address can be mapped by the MMU.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
% \subsection{Instruction Cache}
 
 
 
% \subsection{Data Cache}
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Pipeline Stalls}
 
\subsection{Pipeline Stalls}
 
The processing pipeline can and will stall for a variety of reasons.  Some of
 
The processing pipeline can and will stall for a variety of reasons.  Some of
 
these are obvious, some less so.  These reasons are listed below:
 
these are obvious, some less so.  These reasons are listed below:
 
\begin{itemize}
 
\begin{itemize}
 
\item When the prefetch cache is exhausted
 
\item When the prefetch cache is exhausted
 
 
 
 
Line 1453... Line 1593... 
prefetch cache is loaded to support the next instruction.  In the case
 
prefetch cache is loaded to support the next instruction.  In the case
 
of the more traditional {\tt pfcache} approach, the entire cache line must
 
of the more traditional {\tt pfcache} approach, the entire cache line must
 
fill before instruction execution can continue.
 
fill before instruction execution can continue.
 
 
 
 
 
\item While waiting for the pipeline to load following any taken branch, jump,
 
\item While waiting for the pipeline to load following any taken branch, jump,
 
        return from interrupt or switch to interrupt context (4 stall cycles)
 
        return from interrupt or switch to interrupt context (4 stall cycles,
 
 
 
        minimum)
 
 
 
 
 
Fig.~\ref{fig:bcstalls}
 
Fig.~\ref{fig:bcstalls}
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\includegraphics[width=3.5in]{../gfx/bc.eps}
 
\includegraphics[width=3.5in]{../gfx/bc.eps}
 
\caption{A conditional branch generates 4 stall cycles}\label{fig:bcstalls}
 
\caption{A conditional branch generates 4 stall cycles}\label{fig:bcstalls}
Line 1468... Line 1609... 
{\tt IA}.  Therefore, the pipeline needs to be cleared and reloaded.
 
{\tt IA}.  Therefore, the pipeline needs to be cleared and reloaded.
 
Given that there are five stages to the pipeline, that accounts
 
Given that there are five stages to the pipeline, that accounts
 
for the four stalls.  (Were the {\tt pipefetch} cache chosen, there would
 
for the four stalls.  (Were the {\tt pipefetch} cache chosen, there would
 
be another stall internal to the {\tt pipefetch} cache.)
 
be another stall internal to the {\tt pipefetch} cache.)
 
 
 
 
 
The Zip CPU handles the {\tt ADD \$X,PC} and
 
The decode stage can handle the {\tt ADD \$X,PC}, {\tt LDI \$X,PC}, and
 
{\tt LDI \$X,PC} instructions specially, however.  These instructions, when
 
{\tt LOD (PC),PC} instructions specially, however, when {\tt EARLY\_BRANCHING}
 
not conditioned on the flags, can execute with only a single stall cycle,
 
is enabled.  These instructions, when
 
such as is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:branch}.\footnote{Note that when using the
 
not conditioned on the flags, can execute with only a single stall cycle (two
 
{\tt pipefetch} cache, this requires an additional stall cycle due to that
 
for the {\tt LOD(PC),PC} instruction),
 
cache's implementation.}
 
such as is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:branch}.
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\includegraphics[width=4in]{../gfx/bra.eps} %0.4in per clock
 
\includegraphics[width=4in]{../gfx/bra.eps} %0.4in per clock
 
\caption{An expedited branch costs a single stall cycle}\label{fig:branch}
 
\caption{An expedited branch costs a single stall cycle}\label{fig:branch}
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
In this example, {\tt BR} is a branch always taken, {\tt I1} is the instruction
 
In this example, {\tt BR} is a branch always taken, {\tt I1} is the instruction
Line 1499... Line 1640... 
good news is that this stall can easily be mitigated by proper scheduling.
 
good news is that this stall can easily be mitigated by proper scheduling.
 
That is, any instruction that does not add an immediate to {\tt RA} may be
 
That is, any instruction that does not add an immediate to {\tt RA} may be
 
scheduled into the stall slot.
 
scheduled into the stall slot.
 
 
 
 
 
This is also the reason why, when setting up a stack frame, the top of the
 
This is also the reason why, when setting up a stack frame, the top of the
 
stack frame is used first: it eliminates this stall cycle.  Hence, to save
 
stack frame is used first: it eliminates this stall cycle.\footnote{This only
 
registers at the top of a procedure, one would write:
 
applies if there is no local memory to allocate on the stack as well.}  Hence,
 
 
 
to save registers at the top of a procedure, one would write:
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
\item\ {\tt SUB 2,SP}
 
\item\ {\tt SUB 2,SP}
 
\item\ {\tt STO R1,(SP)}
 
\item\ {\tt STO R1,(SP)}
 
\item\ {\tt STO R2,1(SP)}
 
\item\ {\tt STO R2,1(SP)}
 
\end{enumerate}
 
\end{enumerate}
Line 1591... Line 1733... 
With proper scheduling, it is possible to do something in the ALU while the
 
With proper scheduling, it is possible to do something in the ALU while the
 
memory unit is busy with the STO instruction, but otherwise this pipeline will
 
memory unit is busy with the STO instruction, but otherwise this pipeline will
 
stall while waiting for it to complete before the load instruction can
 
stall while waiting for it to complete before the load instruction can
 
start.
 
start.
 
 
 
 
 
The Zip CPU does have the capability of supporting pipelined memory access,
 
The ZipCPU has the capability of supporting a form of burst memory access,
 
but only under the following conditions: all accesses within the pipeline
 
often called pipelined memory access within this document due to its use of
 
must all be reads or all be writes, all must use the same register for their
 
the Wishbone B4 pipelined access mode.
 
address, and there can be no stalls or other instructions between pipelined
 
When using this mode, the CPU may issue multiple loads or stores at a time,
 
memory access instructions.  Further, the offset to memory must be increasing
 
to the extent that all but the first take only a single clock.  Doing this
 
by one address each instruction.  These conditions work well for saving or
 
requires several conditions to be true:
 
storing registers to the stack.  Indeed, if you noticed, both
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
Fig.~\ref{fig:memrd} and Fig.~\ref{fig:memwr} illustrated pipelined memory
 
\item Aall accesses within the burst must all be reads or all be writes,
 
accesses.
 
\item All must use the same base register for their address, and
 
 
 
\item There can be no stalls or other instructions between memory access instructions within the burst.
 
 
 
\item Further, the immediate offset to memory must be either indentical or
 
 
 
        increasing by one address each instruction.
 
 
 
\end{enumerate}
 
 
 
These conditions work well for saving or storing registers to the stack in a
 
 
 
burst operation.  Indeed, if you noticed, both Fig.~\ref{fig:memrd} and
 
 
 
Fig.~\ref{fig:memwr} illustrated pipelined memory accesses.  Beyond saving and
 
 
 
restoring registers to the stack, the compiler does not optimize well (yet)
 
 
 
for using this burst mode.
 
 
 
 
 
\end{itemize}
 
\end{itemize}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
% \subsection{Debug}
 
 
 
 
 
\chapter{Peripherals}\label{chap:periph}
 
\section{External Architecture}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Having now described the CPU registers, instructions, and instruction formats,
 
 
 
we now turn our attention to how the CPU interacts with the rest of the world.
 
 
 
Specifically, we shall discuss how the bus is implemented, and the memory
 
 
 
model assumed by the CPU.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Simplified Wishbone Bus}\label{ssec:bus}
 
 
 
The bus architecture of the ZipCPU is that of a simplified, pipelined, WISHBONE
 
 
 
bus built according to the B4 specification.  Several changes have been made to
 
 
 
simplify this bus.  First, all unnecessary ancillary information has been
 
 
 
removed.  This includes the retry, tag, lock, cycle type indicator, and burst
 
 
 
indicator signals.  It also includes the select lines which would enable the
 
 
 
CPU to act on less than 32--bit words.  As a result all operations on the bus
 
 
 
are 32--bit operations.  The bus is neither little endian nor big endian.  For
 
 
 
this reason, all words are 32--bits.  All instructions are also 32--bits wide.
 
 
 
Everything has been built around the 32--bit word.  Even the byte size (the
 
 
 
size of the minimum addressable unit) is 32--bits.  Second, we insist that all
 
 
 
accesses be pipelined, and simplify that further by insisting that pipelined
 
 
 
accesses not cross peripherals---although we leave it to the user to keep that
 
 
 
from happening in practice.  Finally, we insist that the wishbone strobe line
 
 
 
be zero any time the cycle line is inactive.  This makes decoding simpler
 
 
 
in slave logic: a transaction is initiated whenever the strobe line is high
 
 
 
and the stall line is low.  For those peripherals that do not generate stalls,
 
 
 
only the strobe line needs to be tested for access.  The transaction completes
 
 
 
whenever either the ACK or the ERR lines go high.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Memory Model}\label{ssec:memory}
 
 
 
The memory model of the ZipCPU is that of a uniform 32--bit address space.
 
 
 
The CPU knows nothing about which addresses reference on--chip or off-chip
 
 
 
memory, or even which reference peripherals.  Indeed, there is no indication
 
 
 
within the CPU if a particular piece of memory can be cached or not, save that
 
 
 
the CPU assumes any and all instruction words can be cached.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The one exception to this rule revolves around addresses beginning with
 
 
 
{\tt 2'b11} in their high order word.  These addresses are used to access a
 
 
 
variety of optional peripherals that will be discussed more in
 
 
 
Sec.~\ref{sec:zipsys}, but that are only present within the {\tt ZipSystem}.
 
 
 
When used with the bare {\tt ZipBones}, these addresses will cause a bus error.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The prefetch cache currently has no means of detecting an instruction that
 
 
 
was changed, save by clearing the instruction cache.  This may be necessary
 
 
 
when loading programs into previously used memory, or when creating
 
 
 
self--modifying code.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Should the memory management unit (MMU) be integrated into the ZipCPU, the MMU
 
 
 
will be able to be configured to instruct the ZipCPU as to which addresses may
 
 
 
be cached and which not.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This topic is discussed further in the linker section, Sec.~\ref{sec:ld-mem}
 
 
 
of the ABI chapter, Chap.~\ref{chap:abi}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
% \subsection{Measured Performance}\label{sec:perf}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{ZipSystem}\label{sec:zipsys}
 
 
 
 
 
While the previous chapter describes a CPU in isolation, the Zip System
 
While the previous chapter describes a CPU in isolation, the Zip System
 
includes a minimum set of peripherals as well.  These peripherals are shown
 
includes a small minimum set of peripherals that can be tightly integrated into
 
in Fig.~\ref{fig:zipsystem}
 
the CPU.  These peripherals are shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:zipsystem}
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\begin{figure}\begin{center}
 
\includegraphics[width=3.5in]{../gfx/system.eps}
 
\includegraphics[width=3.5in]{../gfx/system.eps}
 
\caption{Zip System Peripherals}\label{fig:zipsystem}
 
\caption{Zip System Peripherals}\label{fig:zipsystem}
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
\end{center}\end{figure}
 
and described here.  They are designed to make
 
and described here.  They are designed to make
 
the Zip CPU more useful in an Embedded Operating System environment.
 
the Zip CPU more useful in an Embedded Operating System environment.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Interrupt Controller}\label{sec:pic}
 
\subsubsection{Interrupt Controller}\label{sec:pic}
 
 
 
 
 
Perhaps the most important peripheral within the Zip System is the interrupt
 
Perhaps the most important peripheral within the Zip System is the interrupt
 
controller.  While the Zip CPU itself can only handle one interrupt, and has
 
controller.  While the Zip CPU itself can only handle one interrupt, and has
 
only the one interrupt state: disabled or enabled, the interrupt controller
 
only the one interrupt state: disabled or enabled, the interrupt controller
 
can make things more interesting.
 
can make things more interesting.
 
 
 
 
 
The Zip System interrupt controller module supports up to 15 interrupts, all
 
The Zip System interrupt controller module supports up to 15 interrupts, all
 
controlled from one register.  Bit~31 of the interrupt controller controls
 
controlled from one register.  Further, it has been designed so that individual
 
overall whether interrupts are enabled (1'b1) or disabled (1'b0).  Bits~16--30
 
interrupts can be enabled or disabled individually without having any knowledge
 
control whether individual interrupts are enabled (1'b1) or disabled (1'b0).
 
of the rest of the controller setting.  To enable an interrupt, write to the
 
Bit~15 is an indicator showing whether or not any interrupt is active, and
 
register with the high order global enable bit set and the respective interrupt
 
bits~0--15 indicate whether or not an individual interrupt is active.
 
enable bit set.  No other bits will be affected.  To disable an interrupt,
 
 
 
write to the register with the high order global enable bit cleared and the
 
The interrupt controller has been designed so that bits can be controlled
 
respective interrupt enable bit set.  To clear an interrupt, write a `1' to
 
individually without having any knowledge of the rest of the controller
 
that interrupt's status pin.  A zero written to the register has the sole
 
setting.  To enable an interrupt, write to the register with the high order
 
effect of disabling the master interrupt enable bit.
 
global enable bit set and the respective interrupt enable bit set.  No other
 
 
 
bits will be affected.  To disable an interrupt, write to the register with
 
 
 
the high order global enable bit cleared and the respective interrupt enable
 
 
 
bit set.  To clear an interrupt, write a `1' to that interrupts status pin.
 
 
 
Zero's written to the register have no affect, save that a zero written to the
 
 
 
master enable will disable all interrupts.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
As an example, suppose you wished to enable interrupt \#4.  You would then
 
As an example, suppose you wished to enable interrupt \#4.  You would then
 
write to the register a {\tt 0x80100010} to enable interrupt \#4 and to clear
 
write to the register a {\tt 0x80100010} to enable interrupt \#4 and to clear
 
any past active state.  When you later wish to disable this interrupt, you would
 
any past active state.  When you later wish to disable this interrupt, you would
 
write a {\tt 0x00100010} to the register.  As before, this both disables the
 
write a {\tt 0x00100010} to the register.  This both disables the
 
interrupt and clears the active indicator.  This also has the side effect of
 
interrupt and clears the active indicator.  This also has the side effect of
 
disabling all interrupts, so a second write of {\tt 0x80000000} may be necessary
 
disabling all interrupts, so a second write of {\tt 0x80000000} may be necessary
 
to re-enable any other interrupts.
 
to re-enable any other interrupts.
 
 
 
 
 
The Zip System currently hosts two interrupt controllers, a primary and a
 
The ZipSystem hosts two interrupt controllers: a primary and a secondary.  The
 
secondary.  The primary interrupt controller has one (or more) interrupt line(s)
 
primary interrupt controller is the one that interrupts the CPU.  It has
 
which may come from an external interrupt source, and one interrupt line from
 
six local interrupt lines, the rest coming from external interrupt sources.
 
the secondary controller.  Other primary interrupts include the system timers,
 
One of those interrupt lines to the primary controller comes from the secondary
 
the jiffies interrupt, and the manual cache interrupt.  The secondary interrupt
 
interrupt controller.  This controller maintains an interrupt state for the
 
controller maintains an interrupt state for all of the processor accounting
 
process accounting counters, and any other external interrupts that didn't fit
 
counters.
 
into the primary interrupt controller.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
As a word of caution, because the interrupt controller is an external
 
 
 
peripheral, and because memory writes take place concurrently with any following
 
 
 
instructions, any attempt to clear interrupts on one instruction followed by
 
 
 
an immediate Return to Userspace ({\tt RTU}) instruction, may not have the
 
 
 
effect of having interrupts cleared before the {\tt RTU} instruction executes.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Counter}
 
\subsubsection{Counter}
 
 
 
 
 
The Zip Counter is a very simple counter: it just counts.  It cannot be
 
The Zip Counter is a very simple counter: it just counts.  It cannot be
 
halted.  When it rolls over, it issues an interrupt.  Writing a value to the
 
halted.  When it rolls over, it issues an interrupt.  Writing a value to the
 
counter just sets the current value, and it starts counting again from that
 
counter just sets the current value, and it starts counting again from that
 
value.
 
value.
 
 
 
 
 
Eight counters are implemented in the Zip System for process accounting.
 
Eight counters are implemented in the ZipSystem for process accounting if
 
 
 
the {\tt INCLUDE\_ACCOUNTING\_COUNTERS} define is set within {\tt cpudefs.v}.
 
 
 
Four of those measure the performance of the system as a whole, four are
 
 
 
used for measuring user CPU usage.
 
This may change in the future, as nothing as yet uses these counters.
 
This may change in the future, as nothing as yet uses these counters.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Timer}
 
\subsubsection{Timer}
 
 
 
 
 
The Zip Timer is also very simple: it simply counts down to zero.  When it
 
The Zip Timer is also very simple: it is a 31--bit counter that simply counts
 
transitions from a one to a zero it creates an interrupt.
 
down to zero.  When it transitions from a one to a zero it creates an interrupt.
 
 
 
 
 
Writing any non-zero value to the timer starts the timer.  If the high order
 
Writing any non-zero value to the timer starts the timer.  If the high order
 
bit is set when writing to the timer, the timer becomes an interval timer and
 
bit is set when writing to the timer, the timer becomes an interval timer and
 
reloads its last start time on any interrupt.  Hence, to mark seconds, one
 
reloads its last start time on any interrupt.  Hence, to mark seconds, one
 
might set the timer to 100~million (the number of clocks per second), and
 
might set the 31--bits of the timer to the number of clocks per second and the
 
set the high bit.  Ever after, the timer will interrupt the CPU once per
 
top bit to one.  Ever after, the timer will interrupt the CPU once per
 
second (assuming a 100~MHz clock).  This reload capability also limits the
 
second--until a non--interrupt interval is set in the timer.  This reload
 
maximum timer value to $2^{31}-1$ (about 21~seconds using a 100~MHz clock),
 
capability also limits the maximum timer value to $2^{31}-1$, rather than
 
rather than $2^{32}-1$.
 
$2^{32}-1$.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Watchdog Timer}
 
\subsubsection{Watchdog Timer}
 
 
 
 
 
The watchdog timer is no different from any of the other timers, save for one
 
The watchdog timer has only two differences from the of the other timers.
 
critical difference: the interrupt line from the watchdog
 
The first difference is that it is a one--shot timer.  The second difference,
 
timer is tied to the reset line of the CPU.  Hence writing a `1' to the
 
though, is critical: the interrupt line from the watchdog timer is tied to the
 
watchdog timer will always reset the CPU.
 
reset line of the CPU.  Hence writing a `1' to the watchdog timer will always
 
To stop the Watchdog timer, write a `0' to it.  To start it,
 
reset the CPU.  To stop the Watchdog timer, write a `0' to it.  To start it,
 
write any other number to it---as with the other timers.
 
write any other number to it---as with the other timers.
 
 
 
 
 
While the watchdog timer supports interval mode, it doesn't make as much sense
 
 
 
as it did with the other timers.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Bus Watchdog}
 
\subsubsection{Bus Watchdog}
 
There is an additional watchdog timer on the Wishbone bus.  This timer,
 
There is an additional watchdog timer on the Wishbone bus of the ZipSystem.
 
 
 
This timer,
 
however, is hardware configured and not software configured.  The timer is
 
however, is hardware configured and not software configured.  The timer is
 
reset at the beginning of any bus transaction, and only counts clocks during
 
reset at the beginning of any bus transaction, and only counts clocks during
 
such bus transactions.  If the bus transaction takes longer than the number
 
such bus transactions.  If the bus transaction takes longer than the number
 
of counts the timer allots, it will raise a bus error flag to terminate the
 
of counts the timer allots, it will raise a bus error flag to terminate the
 
transaction.  This is useful in the case of any peripherals that are
 
transaction.  This is useful in the case of any peripherals that are
Line 1706... Line 1914... 
 
 
 
 
Aside from its unusual configuration, the bus watchdog is just another
 
Aside from its unusual configuration, the bus watchdog is just another
 
implementation of the fundamental timer described above--stripped down
 
implementation of the fundamental timer described above--stripped down
 
for simplicity.
 
for simplicity.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Jiffies}
 
\subsubsection{Jiffies}
 
 
 
 
 
This peripheral is motivated by the Linux use of `jiffies' whereby a process
 
This peripheral is motivated by the Linux use of `jiffies' whereby a process
 
can request to be put to sleep until a certain number of `jiffies' have
 
can request to be put to sleep until a certain number of `jiffies' have
 
elapsed.  Using this interface, the CPU can read the number of `jiffies'
 
elapsed.  Using this interface, the CPU can read the number of `jiffies'
 
from the peripheral (it only has the one location in address space), add the
 
from the peripheral (it only has the one location in address space), add the
Line 1724... Line 1932... 
may then place this sleep request into a list among other sleep requests.
 
may then place this sleep request into a list among other sleep requests.
 
Once the timer expires, it would write the next Jiffy request to the peripheral
 
Once the timer expires, it would write the next Jiffy request to the peripheral
 
and wake up the process whose timer had expired.
 
and wake up the process whose timer had expired.
 
 
 
 
 
Indeed, the Jiffies register is nothing more than a glorified counter with
 
Indeed, the Jiffies register is nothing more than a glorified counter with
 
an interrupt.  Unlike the other counters, the Jiffies register cannot be set.
 
an interrupt.  Unlike the other counters, the internal Jiffies counter can only
 
 
 
be read, never set.
 
Writes to the jiffies register create an interrupt time.  When the Jiffies
 
Writes to the jiffies register create an interrupt time.  When the Jiffies
 
register later equals the value written to it, an interrupt will be asserted
 
register later equals the value written to it, an interrupt will be asserted
 
and the register then continues counting as though no interrupt had taken
 
and the register then continues counting as though no interrupt had taken
 
place.
 
place.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Finally, if the new value written to the Jiffies register is within the past
 
 
 
$2^{31-1}$ clock ticks, the Jiffies register will immediately cause an interrupt
 
 
 
and otherwise ignore the new request.
 
 
 
 
 
The purpose of this register is to support alarm times within a CPU.  To
 
The purpose of this register is to support alarm times within a CPU.  To
 
set an alarm for a particular process $N$ clocks in advance, read the current
 
set an alarm for a particular process $N$ clocks in advance, read the current
 
Jiffies value, and $N$, and write it back to the Jiffies register.  The
 
Jiffies value, add $N$, and write it back to the Jiffies register.  The
 
O/S must also keep track of values written to the Jiffies register.  Thus,
 
O/S must also keep track of values written to the Jiffies register.  Thus,
 
when an `alarm' trips, it should be removed from the list of alarms, the list
 
when an `alarm' trips, it should be removed from the list of alarms, the list
 
should be resorted, and the next alarm in terms of Jiffies should be written
 
should be resorted, and the next alarm in terms of Jiffies should be written
 
to the register--possibly for a second time.
 
to the register--possibly for a second time.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Direct Memory Access Controller}
 
\subsubsection{Direct Memory Access Controller}
 
 
 
 
 
The Direct Memory Access (DMA) controller can be used to either move memory
 
The Direct Memory Access (DMA) controller can be used to either move memory
 
from one location to another, to read from a peripheral into memory, or to
 
from one location to another, to read from a peripheral into memory, or to
 
write from a peripheral into memory all without CPU intervention.  Further,
 
write from a peripheral into memory all without CPU intervention.  Further,
 
since the DMA controller can issue (and does issue) pipeline wishbone accesses,
 
since the DMA controller can issue (and does issue) pipeline wishbone accesses,
 
any DMA memory move will by nature be faster than a corresponding program
 
any DMA memory move will by nature be faster than a corresponding program
 
accomplishing the same move.  To put this to numbers, it may take a program
 
accomplishing the same move.  To put this to numbers, it may take a program
 
18~clocks per word transferred, whereas this DMA controller can move one
 
running on the CPU 18~clocks per word transferred, whereas this DMA controller
 
word in two clocks--provided it has bus access.  (The CPU gets priority over
 
can move one word in eight clocks--provided it has bus
 
the bus.)
 
access\footnote{The pipeline cost of the DMA controller, including setup cost,
 
 
 
is a minimum of $14+2N$ clocks.} (The CPU gets priority over the bus, but once
 
 
 
bus access is granted to the DMA peripheral, it will not be revoked mid--read
 
 
 
or mid--write.)
 
 
 
 
 
When copying memory from one location to another, the DMA controller will
 
When copying memory from one location to another, the DMA controller will
 
copy in units of a given transfer length--up to 1024 words at a time.  It will
 
copy in units of a given transfer length--up to 1024 words at a time.  It will
 
read that transfer length into its internal buffer, and then write to the
 
read that transfer length into its internal buffer, and then write to the
 
destination address from that buffer.
 
destination address from that buffer.
 
 
 
 
 
When coupled with a peripheral, the DMA controller can be configured to start
 
When coupled with a peripheral, the DMA controller can be configured to start
 
a memory copy when any interrupt line going high.  Further, the controller can
 
a memory copy when any interrupt line goes high.  Further, the controller can
 
be configured to issue reads from (or to) the same address instead of
 
be configured to issue reads from (or to) the same address instead of
 
incrementing the address at each clock.  The DMA completes once the total
 
incrementing the address at each clock.  The DMA completes once the total
 
number of items specified (not the transfer length) have been transferred.
 
number of items specified (not the transfer length) have been transferred.
 
 
 
 
 
In each case, once the transfer is complete and the DMA unit returns to
 
In each case, once the transfer is complete and the DMA unit returns to
 
idle, the DMA will issue an interrupt.
 
idle, the DMA will issue an interrupt.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
% \subsubsection{Memory Management Unit}
 
 
 
 
 
\chapter{Operation}\label{chap:ops}
 
\section{Debug Interface}\label{sec:debug}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The ZipCPU supports an external debug port.  Access to the port is the
 
 
 
same as accessing a two register peripheral on a wishbone bus, so the basic
 
 
 
interface is fairly simple.  Using this interface, it is possible to both
 
 
 
control the CPU, as well as read register values and current status from the
 
 
 
CPU.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
While a more detailed discussion will be reserved for Sec.~\ref{sec:reg-debug},
 
 
 
here we'll just discuss how it is put together.  The debug interface allows
 
 
 
a controller access to the CPU reset line, and a halt line.  By raising the
 
 
 
reset line, the CPU will be caused to clear it's cache, to clear any internal
 
 
 
exception or error conditions, and then to start execution at the
 
 
 
{\tt RESET\_ADDRESS}--just like a normal reboot.  In a similar fashion, the
 
 
 
debug interface allows you to control the {\tt cpu\_halt} line into the
 
 
 
CPU.  Holding this line high will hold the CPU in an externally halted state.
 
 
 
Toggling the line low for one clock allows one to step the CPU by one
 
 
 
instruction.  Lowering the line causes the CPU to go.  A final control wire,
 
 
 
controlled by the debug interface, will force the CPU to clear its cache.
 
 
 
All of these control wires are set or cleared from the debug control register.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The two debug command registers also make it possible to read and write
 
 
 
all 32 registers within the CPU.  In this fashion, a debugger can halt the
 
 
 
CPU, investigate its state, and even modify registers so as to have the
 
 
 
CPU restart from a different state.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Finally, without halting the CPU, the debug controller can read from any
 
 
 
single register, and it can see if the CPU is still actively running, whether
 
 
 
it is in user or supervisor modes, and whether or not it is sleeping.  This
 
 
 
alone is useful for detecting deadlocks or other difficult problems.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\chapter{Application Binary Interface}\label{chap:abi}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This chapter discusses not the CPU itself, but rather how the GCC and binutils
 
 
 
toolchains have been configured to support the ZipCPU.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
% ELF Format
 
 
 
% Stack:
 
 
 
%       R13 is the stack register.
 
 
 
%       The stack grows downward.
 
 
 
%       Memory at the current stack pointer is allocated.
 
 
 
%       Hence, a PUSH is : SUB 1,SP; STO Rx,(SP)
 
 
 
% Heap:
 
 
 
%       In general, not yet implemented.
 
 
 
%       A less than adequate Heap has been implemented as a pointer, from which
 
 
 
%       malloc requests simply decrement it.  Free's are NOOPs, leaving
 
 
 
%       allocated memory allocated forever.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Executable File Format}\label{sec:abi-elf}
 
 
 
ZipCPU executable files are stored in the Executable and Linkable Format
 
 
 
(ELF), prior to being placed in flash, or whatever memory they will be
 
 
 
executed from.  All addresses within this format are ZipCPU addresses,
 
 
 
referencing 32--bit quantities, whereas all offsets internal to the ELF file
 
 
 
represent 8--bit quantities.  Thus, when running the {\tt zip-objdump} utility
 
 
 
on a ZipCPU ELF file, the addresses are properly set.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The ZipCPU does not (yet) have a dynamic linker/loader.  All linking is
 
 
 
currently static, and done prior to run time.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Stack}\label{sec:abi-stack}
 
 
 
Although nothing in the hardware requires this, the compiler back end
 
 
 
implementation uses {\tt R13} (also known as the {\tt SP} register) as a stack
 
 
 
register, and grows the stack from
 
 
 
high addresses to lower addresses.  That means that the stack will usually
 
 
 
start out set to a very large value, such as one past the last RAM address,
 
 
 
and it will grow to lower and lower values--hopefully never mixing with the
 
 
 
heap.  Memory at the current stack position is assumed to be allocated.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
When creating a stack frame for a function, the compiler will subtract
 
 
 
the size of the stack frame from the stack register.  It will then store
 
 
 
any registers used by the function, from {\tt R5} to {\tt R12} (including
 
 
 
the link register {\tt R0}) onto offsets given by the stack pointer plus a
 
 
 
constant.  If a frame pointer is used, the compiler uses {\tt R12} (or {\tt FP})
 
 
 
for this purpose.  The frame pointer is set by moving the stack pointer
 
 
 
plus an offset into {\tt FP}.  This {\tt MOV} instruction effectively limits
 
 
 
the size of any individual stack frame to $2^{12}-1$ words.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Once a subroutine is complete, the frame is unwound.  If the frame pointer,
 
 
 
{\tt FP} was used, then {\tt FP} is copied directly to the stack pointer,
 
 
 
{\tt SP}.  Registers are restored, starting with {\tt R0} all the way to
 
 
 
{\tt R12} ({\tt FP}).  This also restores, and obliterates, the subroutine
 
 
 
frame pointer.  Once complete, a value is added to the stack pointer to return
 
 
 
it to its original value, and a jump is made to the value located within
 
 
 
{\tt R0}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Relocations}\label{sec:abi-reloc}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The ZipCPU binutils back end supports two several relocations, although the
 
 
 
two most common are the 32--bit relocations for register load and long jump.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The first of these is for loading an arbitrary 32--bit value into a register.
 
 
 
Such instructions are broken into a pair of {\tt BREV} and {\tt LDILO}
 
 
 
instructions, and once the value of the parameter is known their immediates
 
 
 
are filled in.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The second type of 32--bit relocation is for jumps to arbitrary addresses.
 
 
 
These jumps are supported by the \hbox{\tt LOD (PC),PC} instruction, followed
 
 
 
by the 32--bit address to be filled in later by the linker.  If the jump is
 
 
 
conditional, then a conditional \hbox{\tt LOD.$x$ 1(PC),PC} instruction is
 
 
 
used, followed by a {\tt BRA 1(PC),PC} and then the 32--bit relocation value.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
If the branch distance is known and within reach, branches will be implemented
 
 
 
with {\tt ADD \#,PC} instructions, possibly conditional, as necessary.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
While other relocations are supported, they tend not to be used nearly as much
 
 
 
as these two.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Call format}\label{sec:abi-jsr}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
One feature of the ZipCPU is that it has no JSR instruction.  Jumps to
 
 
 
subroutine's therefore take three assembly instructions:
 
 
 
The first is a {\tt MOV .Lcall\#\#(PC),R0}, which places the return address
 
 
 
into R0.  {\tt .Lcall\#\#} in this case is a label, where \#\# is a unique
 
 
 
number filled in by the compiler.  This instruction is followed by a
 
 
 
{\tt BRA subroutine} instruction.  Finally, the third assembly ``instruction''
 
 
 
of any call sequence is the label {\tt .Lcall\#\#}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
While this works well in practice, GCC's implementation prevents such things
 
 
 
as {\tt JSR}'s followed by {\tt BRA}'s from being combined together.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Finally, the first five operands passed to the subroutine will be placed into
 
 
 
registers R1--R5.  Any additional operands are placed upon the stack.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Built-ins}\label{sec:abi-builtin}
 
 
 
The ZipCPU ABI supports the a number of built in functions.  The compiler
 
 
 
maps these functions directly to assembly language equivalents, essentially
 
 
 
providing the C~programmer with access to several assembly language
 
 
 
instructions.  These are:
 
 
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
 
 
\item {\tt zip\_bitrev(int)} reverses the bits in the given integer, returning
 
 
 
        the result.  This utilizes the internal {\tt BREV} instruction, and is
 
 
 
        designed to be used with FFT's as necessary.
 
 
 
\item {\tt zip\_busy()} executes an {\tt ADD -1,PC} function, essentially
 
 
 
        forcing the CPU into a very tight infinite loop.
 
 
 
\item {\tt zip\_cc()} returns the value of the current CC register.  This may
 
 
 
        be used within both user and supervisor code to determine in which
 
 
 
        mode the CPU is within.
 
 
 
\item {\tt zip\_halt()} executes an \hbox{\tt OR \$SLEEP,CC} instruction to
 
 
 
        place the processor to sleep.  If the processor is in supervisor mode,
 
 
 
        this halt's the processor.
 
 
 
\item {\tt zip\_rtu()} executes an \hbox{\tt OR \$GIE,CC} instruction.  This
 
 
 
        will place the CPU into user mode, and has no effect if the CPU is
 
 
 
        already in user mode.
 
 
 
\item {\tt zip\_step()} executes an \hbox{\tt OR \$STEP|\$GIE,CC} instruction.
 
 
 
        This will place the CPU into user mode in order to step one instruction,
 
 
 
        and then return to supervisor mode.
 
 
 
        It has no effect if the CPU is already in user mode.
 
 
 
\item {\tt zip\_system()} executes an \hbox{\tt AND \textasciitilde\$GIE,CC}
 
 
 
        instruction to return the CPU to supervisor mode.  This essentially
 
 
 
        executes a trap, setting the trap bit for the supervisor to examine.
 
 
 
        What this instruction does not do is arrange for the trap arguments to
 
 
 
        be placed into the  registers {\tt R1} through {\tt R5}.  Since this is
 
 
 
        a wholly inadequate solution, a function call may be made to an
 
 
 
        assembly routine that executes a trap if necessary.
 
 
 
\item {\tt zip\_wait()} executes a \hbox{\tt \$SLEEP|\$GIE,CC} instruction.
 
 
 
        Unlike {\tt zip\_halt()}, this {\tt zip\_wait()} instruction places
 
 
 
        the CPU into a wait state regardless of whether or not the CPU is
 
 
 
        in supervisor mode or not.   When this function, i.e. instruction,
 
 
 
        completes, it will leave the CPU in supervisor mode upon an interrupt
 
 
 
        having taken place.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        You may wish to set the user program counter prior to this instruction,
 
 
 
        as the prefetch unit will try to load instructions from the address
 
 
 
        contained within the user program counter.  Attempts to read from
 
 
 
        addresses with sideeffects may not produce the desired outcome.
 
 
 
        However, once that cache fails (or succeeds), the CPU will have been
 
 
 
        put to sleep and will do no more.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item {\tt zip\_restore\_context(context *)} inserts the 32~assembly
 
 
 
        instructions necessary to copy all sixteen user registers to a memory
 
 
 
        region pointed to by the given context pointer, starting with {\tt uR0}
 
 
 
        on up to {\tt uPC}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item {\tt zip\_save\_context(context *)} inserts the 32~assembly instructions
 
 
 
        necessary to copy all sixteen user registers to a memory region pointed
 
 
 
        to by the given context pointer argument, starting
 
 
 
        with {\tt uR0} on up to {\tt uPC}.
 
 
 
\item {\tt zip\_ucc()}, returns the value of the user CC register.
 
 
 
\end{enumerate}
 
 
 
 
 
The Zip CPU, and even the Zip System, is not a System on a Chip (SoC).  It
 
% Builtin functions:
 
needs to be connected to its operational environment in order to be used.
 
%       zip_break();
 
Specifically, some per system adjustments need to be made:
 
%       zip_idle();
 
 
 
%       zip_syscall(a,b,c,d)
 
 
 
%
 
 
 
\section{Linker Scripts}\label{sec:ld}
 
 
 
The ZipCPU makes no assumptions about its memory layout.  The result, though,
 
 
 
is that the memory layout of a given project is board specific.  This
 
 
 
is accomplished via a board specific linker script.  This section will discuss
 
 
 
some of the specifics of a ZipCPU linker script.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Because the ZipCPU uses a modified binutils package as part of its tool chain,
 
 
 
the format for this linker script is defined by the GNU LD project within
 
 
 
binutils.  Further details on that format may be found within the GNU LD
 
 
 
documentation within the binutils package.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This discussion will focus on those parts of the script specific to the ZipCPU.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Memory Types}\label{sec:ld-mem}
 
 
 
Of the FPGA boards that the ZipCPU has been applied to, most of them have some
 
 
 
combination of three types of memory: flash, block RAM, and Synchronous
 
 
 
Dynamic RAM (SDRAM).  Of these three, only the flash is non--volatile.  The
 
 
 
block RAM is the fastest, and the SDRAM the largest.  While other memory types
 
 
 
are available, such as files on an external media such as an SD card or a
 
 
 
network drive, these three types have so far been sufficient for our purposes.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
To support these memories, the linker script has three memory lines identifying
 
 
 
where each memory exists on the bus, the size of the memory, and any protections
 
 
 
associated with it.  For example,
 
 
 
\begin{eqnarray*}
 
 
 
\mbox{blkram (wx) : ORIGIN = 0x0008000, LENGTH = 0x0008000}
 
 
 
\end{eqnarray*}
 
 
 
specifies that there is a region of memory, called blkram, that can be read and
 
 
 
written, and that programs can execute from.  This section starts at address
 
 
 
{\tt 0x8000} and extends for another {\tt 0x8000} words.  The other memories
 
 
 
are defined in a similar manner, with names {\tt flash} and {\tt sdram}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Following the memory section, three specific symbols are defined:
 
 
 
        {\tt \_flash}, defining the beginning of flash memory,
 
 
 
        {\tt \_blkram}, defining the beginning of on--chip block RAM,
 
 
 
        and
 
 
 
        {\tt \_sdram}, defining the beginning of SDRAM.
 
 
 
These symbols are used to make the bootloader's task easier.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{The Entry Function}\label{sec:ld-entry}
 
 
 
The ZipCPU has, as a parameter, a {\tt RESET\_ADDRESS}.  It is important
 
 
 
that this address contain a valid instruction (or more), since this is the
 
 
 
first instruction the ZipCPU will execute.  Traditionally, this address is also
 
 
 
the first address in instruction memory as well.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
To make this happen, the ZipCPU defines two additional segments: the
 
 
 
{\tt .start} and the {\tt .boot} segments.  The {\tt  .start} segment is to
 
 
 
have nothing in it but the very initial startup code.  This code needs to run
 
 
 
from flash (or other ROM).  By placing this segment at the very beginning of
 
 
 
the ZipCPU's flash address space, and in particular at the first valid flash
 
 
 
address, the ZipCPU will boot from this address.  This is the purpose of the
 
 
 
{\tt .start} section.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The {\tt .boot} section has a similar purpose.  This section includes anything
 
 
 
associated with the bootloader.  It is a special section because, when loading
 
 
 
from flash, the bootloader {\em cannot} be placed in RAM, but must be placed
 
 
 
in flash--since it is the code that loads things from flash into RAM.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
It may also make sense to place any code executed once only within flash as
 
 
 
well.  Such code may run slower than the main system code, but by leaving it in
 
 
 
flash it can be kept from consuming any higher speed RAM.  To do this, place
 
 
 
this other code into the {\tt .boot} section.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
You may also find that large data structures that are best left in flash
 
 
 
can also be placed into this {\tt .boot} section as well for that purpose.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Bootloader Tags}\label{sec:ld-boot}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The bootloader needs to know a couple things from the linker script.  It needs
 
 
 
to know what code/data to copy to block RAM from the flash, what code/data to
 
 
 
copy to SDRAM, and finally what initial data area needs to be zeroed.  Four
 
 
 
additional pointers, set within a linker script, can define these regions.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
 
 
\item {\tt \_kernel\_image\_start}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        This is the first location in flash containing data that the bootloader
 
 
 
        needs to move.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item {\tt \_kernel\_image\_end}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        This is a pointer to one past the last location in block RAM to place
 
 
 
        things into.  If this pointer is equal to {\tt \_kernel\_image\_start},
 
 
 
        then no information is placed into block RAM.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item {\tt \_sdram\_image\_start}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        This should be equal to {\tt \_kernel\_image\_end}.  It is a pointer,
 
 
 
        within block RAM address space, of the first location to be moved
 
 
 
        into SDRAM.  By adding the difference between
 
 
 
        {\tt \_sdram\_image\_start} and {\tt \_blkram} to the flash address
 
 
 
        in {\tt \_kernel\_image\_start}, the actual source address within the
 
 
 
        flash of the code/data that needs to be copied into SDRAM can be
 
 
 
        determined.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item {\tt \_sdram\_image\_end}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        This is the ending address of any code/data to be copied into SDRAM.
 
 
 
        The distance between this pointer and {\tt \_sdram} should be the
 
 
 
        amount of data to be placed into SDRAM.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item {\tt \_bss\_image\_end}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        The BSS segment contains data the starts with an initial value of
 
 
 
        zero.  Such data are usually not placed in the executable file, nor
 
 
 
        are they placed into any flash image.  This address points to the
 
 
 
        last location in SDRAM used by the BSS segment.  The bootloader
 
 
 
        is responsible then for clearing the SDRAM between
 
 
 
        {\tt \_sdram\_image\_end} and {\tt \_bss\_image\_end}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        The bootloader must also be robust enough to handle the cases where
 
 
 
        1) there is no SDRAM, 2) there is no block RAM, and 3) where there
 
 
 
        is non requirement to move memory at all---such as when the program
 
 
 
        is placed into memory and started from there.
 
 
 
\end{enumerate}
 
 
 
\subsection{Other required linker symbols}\label{sec:ld-other}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Two other symbols need to be defined in the linker script, which are used
 
 
 
by the startup code.  These are:
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
\item The Zip System depends upon an external 32-bit Wishbone bus.  This
 
\item {\tt \_top\_of\_stack}
 
        must exist, and must be connected to the Zip CPU for it to work.
 
 
 
\item The Zip System needs to be told of its {\tt RESET\_ADDRESS}.  This is
 
        This is the address that the startup code will set the stack pointer
 
        the program counter of the first instruction following a reset.
 
        to point to.  It may be one past the last location of a RAM memory,
 
\item To conserve logic, you'll want to set the {\tt ADDRESS\_WIDTH} parameter
 
        whether block RAM or SDRAM.
 
        to the number of address bits on your wishbone bus.
 
 
 
\item Likewise, the {\tt LGICACHE} parameter sets the number of bits in
 
\item {\tt \_top\_of\_heap}
 
        the instruction cache address.  This means that the instruction cache
 
 
 
        will have $2^{\mbox{\tiny\tt LGICACHE}}$ locations within it.
 
        This is the first location past the end of the {\tt .bss} segment.
 
\item If you want the Zip System to start up on its own, you will need to
 
        Equivalently, this is the address of the first unused piece of
 
        set the {\tt START\_HALTED} parameter to zero.  Otherwise, if you
 
        memory, or the location from whence to start any dynamic memory
 
        wish to manually start the CPU, that is if upon reset you want the
 
        subsystem.
 
        CPU start start in its halted, reset state, then set this parameter to
 
 
 
        one.  This latter configuration is useful for a CPU that should be
 
 
 
        idle (i.e. halted) until given an explicit instruction from somewhere
 
 
 
        else to start.
 
 
 
\item The third parameter to set is the number of interrupts you will be
 
 
 
        providing from external to the CPU.  This can be anything from one
 
 
 
        to sixteen, but it cannot be zero.  (Set this to 1 and wire the single
 
 
 
        interrupt line to a 1'b0 if you do not wish to support any external
 
 
 
        interrupts.)
 
 
 
\item Finally, you need to place into some wishbone accessible address, whether
 
 
 
        RAM or (more likely) ROM, the initial instructions for the CPU.
 
 
 
\end{enumerate}
 
\end{enumerate}
 
If you have enabled your CPU to start automatically, then upon power up the
 
 
 
CPU will immediately start executing your instructions, starting at the given
 
 
 
{\tt RESET\_ADDRESS}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This is, however, not how I have used the Zip CPU.  I have instead used the
 
 
 
Zip CPU in a more controlled environment.  For me, the CPU starts in a
 
 
 
halted state, and waits to be told to start.  Further, the RESET address is a
 
 
 
location in RAM.  After bringing up the board I am using, and further the
 
 
 
bus that is on it, the RAM memory is then loaded externally with the program
 
 
 
I wish the Zip System to run.  Once the RAM is loaded, I release the CPU.
 
 
 
The CPU then runs until either its halt condition or an exception occurrs in
 
 
 
supervisor mode, at which point its task is complete.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Eventually, I intend to place an operating system onto the ZipSystem, I'm
 
\section{Loading ZipCPU Programs}
 
just not there yet.
 
There are two basic ways to load a ZipCPU program, depending upon whether or
 
 
 
not the ZipCPU is active within the current configuration.  If the ZipCPU
 
 
 
is not a part of the current FPGA configuration, one need only write the
 
 
 
flash and then switch configurations.  It will be the CPU's responsibility
 
 
 
to place itself in RAM then.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The more practical alternative is a little more involved, and there are
 
 
 
several steps to it.
 
 
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
 
 
\item Halt the CPU by writing 0x0440 to the CPU control register.  This
 
 
 
        both halts and resets the CPU.  It then prevents both bus contention,
 
 
 
        while writing the new instructions to memory, as well as preventing the
 
 
 
        CPU from running some instructions from one program and other
 
 
 
        instructions from another.
 
 
 
\item Load the program into memory.  For many programs this will involve
 
 
 
        loading the program into flash, and necessitate having and using a
 
 
 
        flash controller.  The ZipCPU also supports being loaded straight into
 
 
 
        RAM address as well, as though the bootloader had completed
 
 
 
        it's task.
 
 
 
\item You may optionally, at this point, clear all of the CPUs registers,
 
 
 
        to make certain the reboot is clean.
 
 
 
\item Set the sPC register to the starting address.
 
 
 
\item Clear the instruction cache in order to force the CPU to reload its
 
 
 
        cache upon start.
 
 
 
\item Release the CPU by writing to the CPU debug control register a number
 
 
 
        between 0 and 31.  This number will correspond to the register number
 
 
 
        of the register that can be ``peeked'' at while the CPU is running.
 
 
 
\end{enumerate}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
%
 
 
 
\section{Starting a ZipCPU program}
 
 
 
\subsection{CRT0}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Most computers have a section of code, conventionally called {\tt crt0}, which
 
 
 
loads a program into memory.  On the ZipCPU, this code starts at {\tt \_start}.
 
 
 
It is responsible for setting the stack pointer, calling the boot loader,
 
 
 
and then calling the main entry function, {\tt entry()}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Because {\tt \_start} {\em must} be the first symbol in a program, and because
 
 
 
that first symbol is located at the boot address for the CPU, the {\tt \_start}
 
 
 
is placed into the {\tt .start} segment.  It is the only routine placed there.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
On those CPU's that don't have enough logic space for a debugger, it may be
 
 
 
useful to place a routine to dump any registers, stack values and/or kernel
 
 
 
traces to an output routine at this time.  That way, on any kernel fault, the
 
 
 
kernel can be brought back up with a debug trace.  This works because rebooting
 
 
 
the CPU doesn't reset any register values save the {\tt sCC} and {\tt sPC}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{The Bootloader}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
As discussed in Sec.~\ref{sec:ld-boot}, the bootloader must be placed into
 
 
 
flash if it is used.  It can be a small C program (it need not be assembly,
 
 
 
like {\tt \_start}), and it only needs to copy memory.  First, it copies any
 
 
 
memory from flash to block RAM.  Second, it copies any necessary memory from
 
 
 
flash to SDRAM.  Then, it zeros any memory necessary in SDRAM (or block RAM,
 
 
 
if there is no SDRAM).
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
These memory copies may be done with the DMA, or they may be done one--at--a
 
 
 
time for a performance penalty.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Kernel Entry}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
After calling the boot loader, execution returns to the {\tt \_start} routine
 
 
 
which then calls the main program entry function, {\tt entry()}.  No
 
 
 
requirements are laid upon this entry function regarding where it must reside.
 
 
 
The simplest place to put it is in Block RAM--and just to put all code and
 
 
 
variables there.  In reality, this entry function may easily be left in flash.
 
 
 
It often doesn't need to run particularly fast, since there may easily be
 
 
 
one--time setup functions that are independent of the programs main loop.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Kernel Main}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
If the kernel entry function, {\tt entry()}, is placed in flash, it should call
 
 
 
a separate function to run the main while loop once it has been set up.  In
 
 
 
this fashion, the main while loop may be kept in the fastest memory necessary
 
 
 
(that it will fit within), to ensure good performance.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\chapter{Operation}\label{chap:ops}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This chapter will explore how to perform common tasks with the ZipCPU,
 
 
 
offering examples in both C and assembly for those tasks.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{CRT0}
 
 
 
 
 
The rest of this chapter examines some common programming models, and how they
 
Of course, the one task that every CPU must do is start the CPU for other
 
might be applied to the Zip System, and then finish with a couple of examples.
 
tasks.  The ZipCPU is no different.  This is the one ZipCPU task that must
 
 
 
take place in assembly, since no assumptions can be made about the state of
 
 
 
the ZipCPU upon entry.  In particular, the stack pointer, SP, needs to be
 
 
 
loaded with a valid memory location before any higher level language can work.
 
 
 
Once that has taken place, it is then possible to call other higher level
 
 
 
routines.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Table.~\ref{tbl:op-init}
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
{\em ; By starting our loader in the .start section, we guarantee through our}\\
 
 
 
{\em ; linker script that these are the very first instructions the CPU sees.}\\
 
 
 
\hbox to 0.25in{}\={\tt .section .start} \\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt .global \_start} \\
 
 
 
{\em ; \_start is to be placed at our reboot/reset address, so it will be}\\
 
 
 
{\em ; called upon any reboot.}\\
 
 
 
{\tt \_start:} \\
 
 
 
\> {\em ; The most important step: creating a stack pointer.  The value}\\
 
 
 
\> {\em ; {\tt \_top\_of\_stack} is created by the linker based upon the linker script.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LDI \_top\_of\_stack,SP} \\
 
 
 
\> {\em ; We then call the bootloader to load our code into memory.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt MOV \_after\_bootloader(PC),R0} \\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt BRA bootloader} \\
 
 
 
{\tt \_after\_bootloader:} \\
 
 
 
\>      {\em ; Just in case the bootloader messed up the stack, we'll reset it here.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LDI \_top\_of\_stack,SP} \\
 
 
 
\>      {\em ; Finally, we call the entry function for the entire design.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt MOV \_kernel\_exit(PC),R0}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt BRA entry}\\
 
 
 
{\em ; The {\tt \_kernel\_exit} routine that follows isn't strictly necessary,}\\
 
 
 
{\em ; since the CPU should never return from the {\tt entry()} function.  However,}\\
 
 
 
{\em ; since returning from such a function is valid C code, and just in case}\\
 
 
 
{\em ; it does return, we provide this function as a fail safe to make sure}\\
 
 
 
{\em ; the kernel halts upon completion.}\\
 
 
 
{\tt \_kernel\_exit:}\\
 
 
 
\> {\tt HALT}\\
 
 
 
\> {\tt BRA \_kernel\_exit}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Setting up a stack frame and starting the CPU}\label{tbl:op-init}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
presents an example of one such initialization routine
 
 
 
that first sets up the stack, then calls a bootloader routine.  Upon completion,
 
 
 
the initialization routine then calls the main entry point for the CPU.  Should
 
 
 
that main entry point ever return, a short routine following halts the CPU.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The example also highlights one optimization that didn't take place.  Instead
 
 
 
of placing the {\tt \_after\_bootloader} address into {\tt R0}, this script
 
 
 
could have placed the {\tt entry()} address into {\tt R0}.  Had it done so, the
 
 
 
CPU would not have suffered the pipeline stalls associated with two long jumps:
 
 
 
the first to {\tt R0}, and the second to {\tt entry}.  Instead, it would have
 
 
 
suffered such stalls only once: when jumping to {\tt entry()}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
% \section{Example bootloader}
 
 
 
 
 
\section{System High}
 
\section{System High}
 
The easiest and simplest way to run the Zip CPU is in the system high mode.
 
The easiest and simplest way to run the Zip CPU is in the system high mode.
 
In this mode, the CPU runs your program in supervisor mode from reboot to
 
In this mode, the CPU runs your program in supervisor mode from reboot to
 
power down, and is never interrupted.  You will need to poll the interrupt
 
power down, and is never interrupted.  You will need to poll the interrupt
 
controller to determine when any external condition has become active.  This
 
controller to determine when any external condition has become active.  This
 
mode is useful, and can handle many microcontroller tasks.
 
mode is incredibly useful, and can handle many microcontroller--type tasks.
 
 
 
 
 
Even better, in system high mode, all of the user registers are available
 
Even better, in system high mode, all of the user registers are available
 
to the system high program as variables.  Accessing these registers can be
 
to the system high program as variables.  Accessing these registers can be
 
done in a single clock cycle, which would move them to the active register
 
done in a single clock cycle, which would move them to the active register
 
set or move them back.  While this may seem like a load or store instruction,
 
set or move them back.  While this may seem like a load or store instruction,
Line 1849... Line 2476... 
\>      {\tt RETN} \\
 
\>      {\tt RETN} \\
 
\end{tabbing}
 
\end{tabbing}
 
\caption{Executing an idle from supervisor mode}\label{tbl:shi-idle}
 
\caption{Executing an idle from supervisor mode}\label{tbl:shi-idle}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
There are some problems with this model, however.  For example, even though
 
 
 
the user registers can be accessed in a single cycle, there is currently
 
 
 
no way to do so other than with assembly instructions.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
An alternative to this approach is to use the {\tt zip\_wait()} built--in
 
 
 
function.  This places the ZipCPU into an idle/sleep mode to wait for
 
 
 
interrupts.  Because the supervisor puts the CPU to sleep, rather than the
 
 
 
user, no user context needs to be set up.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{A Programmable Delay}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
One common task in microcontrollers, whether in a user task or supervisor
 
 
 
task, is to wait for a programmable amount of time.  Using the ZipSystem,
 
 
 
there are several peripherals that can be used to create such a delay.
 
 
 
It can be done with one of the three timers, the jiffies, or even an off-chip
 
 
 
ZipCounter.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Here, in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:shi-timer},
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
{\tt \#define EINT(A) (0x80000000|(A<<16))} \= {\em // Enable interrupt A}\\
 
 
 
{\tt \#define DINT(A) (A<<16)} \>{\em // Just disable the interrupts in A}\\
 
 
 
{\tt \#define DISABLEALL 0x7fff0000} \>{\em // Disable all interrupts}\\
 
 
 
{\tt \#define CLEARPIC 0x7fff7fff} \>{\em // Clears and disables all interrupts}\\
 
 
 
{\tt \#define SYSINT\_TMA 0x10} \>{\em // The Timer--A interrupt mask}\\
 
 
 
\\
 
 
 
{\tt void timer\_delay(int nclocks) \{} \\
 
 
 
\hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\em // Clear the PIC.  We want to exit from here on timer counts alone}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->pic = DISABLEALL|SYSINT\_TMA;}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt if (nclocks > 10) \{}\\
 
 
 
        \> \hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\em // Set our timer to count down the given number of counts}\\
 
 
 
        \> \> {\tt zip->tma = counts} \\
 
 
 
        \> \> {\tt zip->pic = EINT(SYSINT\_TMA);} \\
 
 
 
        \> \> {\tt zip\_wait();} \\
 
 
 
        \> \> {\tt zip->pic = CLEARPIC;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt \} }{\em // else anything less has likely already passed}
 
 
 
{\tt \}}\\
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Waiting on a timer}\label{tbl:shi-timer}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
we present one means of waiting for a programmable amount of time using a
 
 
 
timer.  If exact timing is important, you may wish to calibrate the method
 
 
 
by subtracting from the counts number the counts it takes to actually do the
 
 
 
routine.  Otherwise, the timer is guaranteed to at least {\tt counts}
 
 
 
ticks.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Notice that the routine clears the PIC early on.  While one might expect
 
 
 
that this could be done in the instruction immediately before {\tt zip\_rtu()},
 
 
 
this isn't the case.  The reason is a race condition created by the fact that
 
 
 
the write to the PIC completes after the {\tt zip\_rtu()} instruction.  As a
 
 
 
result, you might find yourself with a zero delay simply because the timer
 
 
 
had tripped some time earlier.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The routine is also careful not to clear any other interrupts beyond the timer
 
 
 
interrupt, lest some other condition trip that the user was also waiting on.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Traditional Interrupt Handling}
 
\section{Traditional Interrupt Handling}
 
Although the Zip CPU does not have a traditional interrupt architecture,
 
Although the Zip CPU does not have a traditional interrupt architecture,
 
it is possible to create the more traditional interrupt approach via software.
 
it is possible to create the more traditional interrupt approach via software.
 
In this mode, the programmable interrupt controller is used together with the
 
In this mode, the programmable interrupt controller is used together with the
 
supervisor state to create the illusion of more traditional interrupt handling.
 
supervisor state to create the illusion of more traditional interrupt handling.
Line 1868... Line 2551... 
        Tbl.~\ref{tbl:traditional-isr}.
 
        Tbl.~\ref{tbl:traditional-isr}.
 
\end{enumerate}
 
\end{enumerate}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
{\tt while(true) \{} \\
 
{\tt while(true) \{} \\
 
\hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\tt rtu();}\\
 
\hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\tt zip\_rtu();}\\
 
        \> {\tt if (trap) \{} {\em // Here, we allow users to install ISRs, or} \\
 
        \> {\tt if (zip\_ucc() \& CC\_TRAPBIT) \{} {\em // Here, we allow users to install ISRs, or} \\
 
        \>\hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\em // whatever else they may wish to do in supervisor mode.} \\
 
        \>\hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\em // whatever else they may wish to do in supervisor mode.} \\
 
 
 
        \>\> {\tt \ldots} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt \} else (zip\_ucc() \& (CC\_BUSERR|CC\_FPUERR|CC\_DIVERR)) \{}\\
 
 
 
        \>\> {\em // Here we handle any faults that the CPU may have
 
 
 
                encountered }\\
 
 
 
        \>\> {\em // The easiest solution is often to print a trace and reboot}\\
 
 
 
        \>\> {\em // the CPU.}\\
 
 
 
        \>\> {\tt \_start();} \\
 
        \> {\tt \} else \{} \\
 
        \> {\tt \} else \{} \\
 
        \> \> {\tt volatile int *pic = PIC\_ADDRESS;} \\
 
 
 
\\
 
 
 
        \> \> {\em // Save the user context before running any ISRs.  This could easily be}\\
 
 
 
        \> \> {\em // implemented as an inline assembly routine or macro}\\
 
 
 
        \> \> {\tt SAVE\_PARTIAL\_CONTEXT; }\\
 
 
 
        \> \> {\em // At this point, we know an interrupt has taken place:  Ask the programmable}\\
 
        \> \> {\em // At this point, we know an interrupt has taken place:  Ask the programmable}\\
 
        \> \> {\em // interrupt controller (PIC) which interrupts are enabled and which are active.}\\
 
        \> \> {\em // interrupt controller (PIC) which interrupts are enabled and which are active.}\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt int        picv = *pic;}\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt int        picv = zip->pic;}\\
 
        \> \>   {\em // Turn off all active interrupts}\\
 
        \> \>   {\em // Turn off all active interrupts}\\
 
        \> \>   {\em // Globally disable interrupt generation in the process}\\
 
        \> \>   {\em // Globally disable interrupt generation in the process}\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt int        active = (picv >> 16) \& picv \& 0x07fff;}\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt int        active = (picv >> 16) \& picv \& 0x07fff;}\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt *pic = (active<<16);}\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt zip->pic = (active<<16);}\\
 
        \> \>   {\em // We build a mask of interrupts to re-enable in picv.}\\
 
        \> \>   {\em // We build a mask of interrupts to re-enable in picv.}\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt picv = 0;}\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt picv = 0;}\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt for(int i=0,msk=1; i<15; i++, msk<<=1) \{}\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt for(int i=0,msk=1; i<15; i++, msk<<=1) \{}\\
 
        \> \>\hbox to 0.25in{}\={\tt if ((active \& msk)\&\&(isr\_table[i])) \{}\\
 
        \> \>\hbox to 0.25in{}\={\tt if ((active \& msk)\&\&(isr\_table[i])) \{}\\
 
        \> \>\>\hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\tt mov(isr\_table[i],uPC); }\\
 
        \> \>\>\hbox to 0.25in{}\={\em // Here we call our interrupt service routine.}\\
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\em // Acknowledge this particular interrupt.  While we could acknowledge all}\\
 
        \> \>\>\hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\tt tmp = (isr\_table[i])(); }\\
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\em // interrupts at once, by acknowledging only those with ISR's we allow}\\
 
 
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\em // the user process to use peripherals manually, and to manually check}\\
 
 
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\em // whether or no those other interrupts had occurred.}\\
 
 
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\tt *pic = msk; }\\
 
 
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\tt rtu(); }\\
 
 
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\em // The ISR will only exit on a trap in the Zip archtecture.  There is}\\
 
 
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\em // no {\tt RETI} instruction.  Since the PIC holds all interrupts disabled,}\\
 
 
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\em // there is no need to check for further interrupts.}\\
 
 
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\em // }\\
 
 
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\em // The tricky part is that, because of how the PIC is built, the ISR cannot}\\
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\em // The tricky part is that, because of how the PIC is built, the ISR cannot}\\
 
        \>\>\>\>        {\em // re-enable its own interrupt without re-enabling all interrupts.  Hence, we}\\
 
        \>\>\>\>        {\em // re-enable its own interrupts without re-enabling all interrupts.  Hence, we}\\
 
        \>\>\>\>        {\em // look at R0 upon ISR completion to know if an interrupt needs to be }\\
 
        \>\>\>\>        {\em // look at the return value from the ISR to know if an interrupt needs to be }\\
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\em // re-enabled. }\\
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\em // re-enabled. }\\
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\tt mov(uR0,tmp); }\\
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\tt if (tmp)} \\
 
        \> \>\>\>       {\tt picv |= (tmp \& 0x7fff) << 16; }\\
 
        \> \>\>\>       \hbox to 0.25in{}\={\tt picv |= msk; }\\
 
        \> \>\>         {\tt \} }\\
 
        \> \>\>         {\tt \} }\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt \} }\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt \} }\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt RESTORE\_PARTIAL\_CONTEXT; }\\
 
        \> \>   {\em // Re-activate, but do not clear, all (requested) interrupts }\\
 
        \> \>   {\em // Re-activate all (requested) interrupts }\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt zip->pic = picv | 0x80000000; }\\
 
        \> \>   {\tt *pic = picv | 0x80000000; }\\
 
 
 
        \>{\tt \} }\\
 
        \>{\tt \} }\\
 
{\tt \}}\\
 
{\tt \}}\\
 
\end{tabbing}
 
\end{tabbing}
 
\caption{Traditional Interrupt handling}\label{tbl:traditional-isr}
 
\caption{Traditional Interrupt handling}\label{tbl:traditional-isr}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
 
 
We can work through the interrupt handling process by examining
 
We can work through the interrupt handling process by examining
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:traditional-isr}.  First, remember, the CPU is always running
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:traditional-isr}.  First, remember, the CPU is always running
 
either the user or the supervisor context.  Once the supervisor switches to
 
either the user or the supervisor context.  Once the supervisor switches to
 
user mode, control does not return until either an interrupt or a trap
 
user mode, control does not return until either an interrupt, a trap, or an
 
has taken place.  (Okay, there's also the possibility of a bus error, or an
 
exception has taken place.  Therefore, if neither the trap bit nor any of the
 
illegal instruction such as an unimplemented floating point instruction---but
 
exception bits have been set, then we know an interrupt has taken place.
 
for now we'll just focus on the trap instruction.)  Therefore, if the trap bit
 
 
 
isn't set, then we know an interrupt has taken place.
 
It is also possible that an interrupt will occur coincident with a trap or
 
 
 
exception.  If this is the case, the subsequent {\tt zip\_rtu()} instruction
 
To process an interrupt, we steal the user's stack: the PC and CC registers
 
will return immediately, since the interrupt has yet to be cleared.
 
are saved on the stack, as outlined in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:save-partial}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
SAVE\_PARTIAL\_CONTEXT: \\
 
 
 
\hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\em ; We save R0, CC, and PC only} \\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt MOV -3(uSP),R3} \\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt MOV uR0,R0} \\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt MOV uCC,R1} \\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt MOV uPC,R2} \\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt STO R0,(R3)} {\em ; Exploit memory pipelining: }\\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt STO R1,1(R3)} {\em ; All instructions write to stack }\\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt STO R2,2(R3)} {\em ; All offsets increment by one }\\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt MOV R3,uSP} {\em ; Return the updated stack pointer } \\
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Saving Minimal User Context}\label{tbl:save-partial}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
This is much cheaper than the full context swap of a preemptive multitasking
 
 
 
kernel, but it also depends upon the ISR saving any state it uses.  Further,
 
 
 
if multiple ISR's get called at once, this looses its optimality property
 
 
 
very quickly.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
As Sec.~\ref{sec:pic} discusses, the top of the PIC register stores which
 
As Sec.~\ref{sec:pic} discusses, the top of the PIC register stores which
 
interrupts are enabled, and the bottom stores which have tripped.  (Interrupts
 
interrupts are enabled, and the bottom stores which have tripped.  (Interrupts
 
may trip without being enabled, they just will not generate an interrupt to the
 
may trip without being enabled, they just will not generate an interrupt to the
 
CPU.)  Our first step is to query the register to find out our interrupt
 
CPU.)  Our first step is to query the register to find out our interrupt
Line 1959... Line 2614... 
any and all further interrupts, not just the ones that have tripped.  Hence,
 
any and all further interrupts, not just the ones that have tripped.  Hence,
 
upon completion, we re--enable the master interrupt bit again.   Finally,
 
upon completion, we re--enable the master interrupt bit again.   Finally,
 
we keep track of which interrupts have tripped.
 
we keep track of which interrupts have tripped.
 
 
 
 
 
Using the bit mask of interrupts that have tripped, we walk through all fifteen
 
Using the bit mask of interrupts that have tripped, we walk through all fifteen
 
possible interrupts.  If there is an ISR installed, we acknowledge and reset
 
possible interrupts.  If there is an ISR installed, we simply call it here.  The
 
the interrupt within the PIC, and then call the ISR.  The ISR, however, cannot
 
ISR, however, cannot re--enable its interrupt without re-enabling the master
 
re--enable its interrupt without re-enabling the master interrupt bit.  Thus,
 
interrupt bit.  Thus, to keep things simple, when the ISR is finished it returns
 
to keep things simple, when the ISR is finished it places its interrupt
 
a boolean into R0 to indicate whether or not the interrupt needs to be
 
mask back into R0, or clears R0.  This tells the supervisor mode process which
 
re-enabled.  Put together, this tells the kernel which interrupts to re--enable.
 
interrupts to re--enable.  Any other registers that the ISR uses must be
 
As a final instruction, interrupts are re--enabled before returning continuing
 
saved and restored.  (This is only truly optimal if only a single ISR is
 
the while loop.
 
called.)  As a final instruction, the ISR clears the GIE bit executing a user
 
 
 
trap.  (Remember, the Zip CPU has no {\tt RETI} instruction to restore the
 
 
 
stack and return to userland.  It needs to go through the supervisor mode to
 
 
 
get there.)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Then, once all interrupts are handled, the user context is restored in  a
 
 
 
fashion similar to Tbl.~\ref{tbl:restore-partial}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
RESTORE\_PARTIAL\_CONTEXT: \\
 
 
 
\hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\em ; We retore R0, CC, and PC only} \\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt MOV uSP,R3} {\em ; Return the updated stack pointer } \\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt LOD R0,(R3),R0} {\em ; Exploit memory pipelining: }\\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt LOD R1,1(R3),R1} {\em ; All instructions write to stack }\\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt LOD R2,2(R3),R2} {\em ; All offsets increment by one }\\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt MOV R0,uR0} \\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt MOV R1,uCC} \\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt MOV R2,uPC} \\
 
 
 
\>        {\tt MOV 3(R3),uSP} \\
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Restoring Minimal User Context}\label{tbl:restore-partial}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
Again, this is short and sweet simply because any other registers that needed
 
 
 
saving were saved within the ISR.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
There you have it: the Zip CPU, with its non-traditional interrupt architecture,
 
There you have it: the Zip CPU, with its non-traditional interrupt architecture,
 
can still process interrupts in a very traditional fashion.
 
can still process interrupts in a very traditional fashion.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Example: Idle Task}
 
\section{Idle Task}
 
One task every operating system needs is the idle task, the task that takes
 
One task every operating system needs is the idle task, the task that takes
 
place when nothing else can run.  On the Zip CPU, this task is quite simple,
 
place when nothing else can run.  On the Zip CPU, this task is quite simple,
 
and it is shown in assemble in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:idle-asm}.
 
and it is shown in assembly in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:idle-asm},
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabular}{ll}
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
{\tt idle\_task:} \\
 
{\tt idle\_task:} \\
 
&        {\em ; Wait for the next interrupt, then switch to supervisor task} \\
 
\hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\em ; Wait for the next interrupt, then switch to supervisor task} \\
 
&        {\tt WAIT} \\
 
\>        {\tt WAIT} \\
 
&        {\em ; When we come back, it's because the supervisor wishes to} \\
 
\>        {\em ; When we come back, it's because the supervisor wishes to} \\
 
&        {\em ; wait for an interrupt again, so go back to the top.} \\
 
\>        {\em ; wait for an interrupt again, so go back to the top.} \\
 
&        {\tt BRA idle\_task} \\
 
\>        {\tt BRA idle\_task} \\
 
\end{tabular}
 
\end{tabbing}
 
\caption{Example Idle Loop}\label{tbl:idle-asm}
 
\caption{Example Idle Task in Assembly}\label{tbl:idle-asm}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
or equivalently in C in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:idle-c}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
{\tt void idle\_task(void) \{} \\
 
 
 
\hbox to 0.25in{}\={\tt while(true) \{} {\em // Never exit}\\
 
 
 
\> {\em // Wait for the next interrupt, then switch to supervisor task} \\
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\> {\tt zip\_wait();} \\
 
 
 
\> {\em // } \\
 
 
 
\> {\em // When we come back, it's because the supervisor wishes to} \\
 
 
 
\> {\em // wait for an interrupt again, so go back to the top.} \\
 
 
 
\> {\tt \}} \\
 
 
 
{\tt \}}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Idle Task in C}\label{tbl:idle-c}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
 
 
When this task runs, the CPU will fill up all of the pipeline stages up the
 
When this task runs, the CPU will fill up all of the pipeline stages up the
 
ALU.  The {\tt WAIT} instruction, upon leaving the ALU, places the CPU into
 
ALU.  The {\tt WAIT} instruction, upon leaving the ALU, places the CPU into
 
a sleep state where nothing more moves.  Sure, there may be some more settling,
 
a sleep state where nothing more moves.  Then, once an interrupt takes place,
 
the pipe cache continue to read until full, other instructions may issue until
 
control passes to the supervisor task to handle the interrupt.  When control
 
the pipeline fills, but then everything will stall.  Then, once an interrupt
 
passes back to this task, it will be on the next instruction.  Since that next
 
takes place, control passes to the supervisor task to handle the interrupt.
 
instruction sends us back to the top of the task, the idle task thus does
 
When control passes back to this task, it will be on the next instruction.
 
nothing but wait for an interrupt.
 
Since that next instruction sends us back to the top of the task, the idle
 
 
 
task thus does nothing but wait for an interrupt.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This should be the lowest priority task, the task that runs when nothing else
 
This should be the lowest priority task, the task that runs when nothing else
 
can.  It will help lower the FPGA power usage overall---at least its dynamic
 
can.  It will help lower the FPGA power usage overall---at least its dynamic
 
power usage.
 
power usage.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Example: Memory Copy}
 
For those highly interested in reducing power consumption, the clock could
 
One common operation is that of a memory move or copy.  Consider the C code
 
even be disabled at this time--requiring only some small modifications to the
 
shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:memcp-c}.
 
core.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Memory Copy}
 
 
 
One common operation is that of a memory move or copy.  This section will
 
 
 
present several methods available to the ZipCPU for performing a memory
 
 
 
copy, starting with the C code shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:memcp-c}.
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\parbox{4in}{\begin{tabbing}
 
\parbox{4in}{\begin{tabbing}
 
{\tt void} \= {\tt memcp(void *dest, void *src, int len) \{} \\
 
{\tt void} \= {\tt memcpy(void *dest, void *src, int len) \{} \\
 
        \> {\tt for(int i=0; i<len; i++)} \\
 
        \> {\tt for(int i=0; i<len; i++)} \\
 
        \> \hspace{0.2in} {\tt *dest++ = *src++;} \\
 
        \> \hspace{0.2in} {\tt *dest++ = *src++;} \\
 
\}
 
\}
 
\end{tabbing}}
 
\end{tabbing}}
 
\caption{Example Memory Copy code in C}\label{tbl:memcp-c}
 
\caption{Example Memory Copy code in C}\label{tbl:memcp-c}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
This same code can be translated in Zip Assembly as shown in
 
Each successive example will further speed up the memory copying process.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This memory copy code can be translated in Zip Assembly as shown in
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:memcp-asm}.
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:memcp-asm}.
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabular}{ll}
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
memcp: \\
 
memcpy: \\
 
&        {\em ; R0 = *dest, R1 = *src, R2 = LEN, R3 = return addr} \\
 
\hbox to 0.35in{}\={\em ; R0 = return address, R1 = *dest, R2 = *src, R3 = LEN} \\
 
&        {\em ; The following will operate in $12N+19$ clocks.} \\
 
\>      {\em ; The following will operate in 6 ($N=0$), or $2+12N$ clocks ($N\neq 0$).} \\
 
&        {\tt CMP 0,R2} \\ % 8 clocks per setup
 
\>      {\tt CMP 0,R3} \\ % 8 clocks per setup
 
&        {\tt MOV.Z R3,PC} {\em ; A conditional return }\\
 
\>      {\tt JMP.Z R0} \hbox to 0.3in{}\= {\em ; A conditional return }\\
 
&        {\tt SUB 1,SP} {\em ; Create a stack frame}\\
 
\>      {\em ; No stack frame needs to be set up to use {\tt R4}, since the compiler}\\
 
&        {\tt STO R4,(SP)} {\em ; and a local variable}\\
 
\>      {\em  ; assumes {\tt R1}-{\tt R4} may be used and changed by any subroutine} \\
 
&        {\em ; (4 stalls, cannot be further scheduled away)} \\
 
memcpy\_loop: \\ % 12 clocks per loop
 
loop: \\ % 12 clocks per loop
 
\>      {\tt LOD (R2),R4} \\
 
&        {\tt LOD (R1),R4} \\
 
\>      {\em ; (4 stalls, cannot be scheduled away)} \\
 
&        {\em ; (4 stalls, cannot be scheduled away)} \\
 
\>      {\tt STO R4,(R1)} \> {\em ; (4 schedulable stalls, has no impact now)} \\
 
&        {\tt STO R4,(R0)} {\em ; (4 schedulable stalls, has no impact now)} \\
 
\>      {\em ; Update our count of the number of remaining values to copy}\\
 
&        {\tt SUB 1,R2} \\
 
\>      {\tt SUB 1,R3}  \> {\em ; This will be zero when we have copied our last}\\
 
&        {\tt BZ memcpend} \\
 
\>      {\tt JMP.Z R0}  \> {\em ; + 4 stalls, if taken}\\
 
&        {\tt ADD 1,R0} \\
 
\>      {\tt ADD 1,R1}  \> {\em ; Implement the destination pointer }\\
 
&        {\tt ADD 1,R1} \\
 
\>      {\tt ADD 1,R2}  \> {\em ; Implement the source pointer }\\
 
&        {\tt BRA loop} \\
 
\>      {\tt BRA memcpy\_loop} \\
 
&        {\em ; (1 stall on a BRA instruction)} \\
 
\>      {\em ; (1 stall on a BRA instruction)} \\
 
memcpend: % 11 clocks
 
\end{tabbing}
 
&        {\tt LOD (SP),R4} \\
 
\caption{Example Memory Copy code in Zip Assembly, Unoptimized}\label{tbl:memcp-asm}
 
&        {\em ; (4 stalls, cannot be further scheduled away)} \\
 
 
 
&        {\tt ADD 1,SP} \\
 
 
 
&        {\tt JMP R3} \\
 
 
 
&        {\em ; (4 stalls)} \\
 
 
 
\end{tabular}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Memory Copy code in Zip Assembly}\label{tbl:memcp-asm}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
This example points out several things associated with the Zip CPU.  First,
 
This example points out several things associated with the Zip CPU.  First,
 
a straightforward implementation of a for loop is not the fastest loop
 
a straightforward implementation of a for loop is not the fastest loop
 
structure.  For this reason, we have placed the test to continue at the
 
structure.  For this reason, we have placed the test to continue at the
 
end.  Second, all pointers are {\tt void} pointers to arbitrary 32--bit
 
end.  Second, all pointers are {\tt void} pointers to arbitrary 32--bit
 
data types.  The Zip CPU does not have explicit support for smaller or larger
 
data types.  The Zip CPU does not have explicit support for smaller or larger
 
data types, and so this memory copy cannot be applied at a byte level.
 
data types, and so this memory copy cannot be applied at an 8--bit level.
 
Third, we've optimized the conditional jump to a return instruction into a
 
Third, notice that we can use {\tt R4} without storing it, since the C~ABI
 
conditional return instruction.
 
allows for subroutines to use {\tt R1}--{\tt R4} without saving them.  This
 
 
 
means that we can return from this subroutine using conditional jumps to
 
 
 
{\tt R0}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Still, there's more that could be done.  Suppose we wished to use the pipeline
 
 
 
bus capability?  We might then write something closer to
 
 
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:memcp-opt}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}\scalebox{0.8}{\parbox{\textwidth}{%
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
% 27 cycles for 0
 
 
 
% 52 cycles for 3
 
 
 
{\em ; Upon entry, R0 = return address, R1 = *dest, R2 = *src, R3 = LEN} \\
 
 
 
{\em ; Achieves roughly $32+17\left\lfloor\frac{N}{4}\right\rfloor$ clocks,
 
 
 
        after the initial pipeline delay}\\
 
 
 
memcpy\_opt: \\
 
 
 
\hbox to 0.35in{}\=\hbox to 1.4in{\tt CMP 4,R3}\= {\em ; Check for small short lengths, len $<$ 4}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt BC memcpy\_finish} \> {\em ; Jump to the end if so}\\
 
 
 
\hbox to 0.35in{}\=\hbox to 1.4in{\tt SUB 3,SP}\= {\em ; Otherwise, create a stack frame, storing the registers}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO R5,(SP)}       \> {\em ; we will be using.  Note that this is a pipelined store, so}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO R6,1(SP)}      \> {\em ; subsequent stores only cost 1 clock.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO R7,2(SP)}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt ADD 4,R2}          \> {\em ; Pre-Increment our pointers, for a 4-stage pipeline.  This}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt ADD 4,R1}          \> {\em ; also fills up the 3 of the 4 stall states following the}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt SUB 5,R3}          \> {\em ; stores.  Also, leave {\tt R3} as the number left minus one.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD -4(R2),R4}     \> {\em ; Load the first four values into }\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD -3(R2),R5}     \> {\em ; registers, using a pipelined load.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD -2(R2),R6}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD -1(R2),R7}\\
 
 
 
{\tt mcopy\_next\_four\_chars:} \>\> {\em ; Here's the top of our copy loop}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO  R4,-4(R1)}    \> {\em ; Store four values, using a burst memory operation.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO  R5,-3(R1)}    \> {\em ; One clock for subsequent stores.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO  R6,-2(R1)}    \> {\em ; None of these effect the flags, that were set when}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO  R7,-1(R1)}    \> {\em ; we last adjusted {\tt R3}}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt BC  preend\_memcpy} \> {\em ; +4 stall cycles, but only when taken}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt ADD  4,R1} \> {\em ; ALU ops don't stall during stores, so}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt ADD  4,R2} \> {\em ; increment our pointers here.} \\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt SUB  4,R3} \> {\em ; Calculate whether or not we have a next round}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD  -4(R2),R4} \> {\em ; Preload the values for the next round}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD  -3(R2),R5}\>  {\em ; Notice that these are also pipelined}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD  -2(R2),R6}\>  {\em ; loads, as before.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD  -1(R2),R7}\>  {\em ; The four stall cycles, though, are concurrent w/ the branch.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt BRA  mcopy\_next\_char} \> {\em ; Early branching avoids the full memory pipeline stall} \\
 
 
 
{\tt preend\_memcpy:}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt ADD  1,R3} \>{\em ; R3 is now the remaining length, rather than one less than it}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD (SP),R5}  \> {\em ; Restore our saved registers, since the remainder of the routine}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD 1(SP),R6} \> {\em ; doesn't use these registers}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD 2(SP),R7} \> {\em ;}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt ADD 3,SP}  \>{\em ; Adjust the stack pointer back to what it was}\\
 
 
 
{\tt memcpy\_finish:}\>\>{\em ; At this point, there are $0\leq$ {\tt R3}$<4$ words left}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt CMP 1,R3} \> {\em ; Check if any ops are remaining }\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt JMP.LT R0} \> {\em ; Return now if nothing is left}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD (R1),R4} \> {\em ; Load and store the first item}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO R4,(R1)} \> {\em ;}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt JMP.Z R0}  \> {\em ; Return if that was our only value}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD 1(R1),R4}\>{\em; Load and store the second item (if necessary)} \\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO R4,1(R1)}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt CMP 2, R3}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt JMP.LT R0}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt LOD 2(R1),R4}\>{\em; Load and store the second item (if necessary)} \\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO R4,2(R1)}\>{\em; {\tt LOD}, {\tt STO}, {\tt JMP R0} will cost 10 cycles}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt JMP     R0} \> {\em ; Finally, we return}\\
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}}}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Memory Copy code in Zip Assembly, Hand Optimized}\label{tbl:memcp-opt}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
This pipeline memory example, though, provides some neat things to discuss
 
 
 
about optimizing code using the ZipCPU.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
First, note that all of the loads and stores, except the three following
 
 
 
{\tt memcpy\_finish}, are pipelined.  To do this, we needed to unroll the
 
 
 
copy loop by a factor of four.  This means that each time through the loop,
 
 
 
we can read and store four values.  At 17~clocks to copy four values, that's
 
 
 
roughly three times faster than our previous example.  The down side, though,
 
 
 
is that the loop now needs a final cleanup section where the last 0--3 values
 
 
 
will be copied.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Second, note that we used our remaining length minus one as our loop variable.
 
 
 
This was done so that the conditions set by subtracting four from our loop
 
 
 
variable could be used without a separate compare.  Speaking of the compare,
 
 
 
note that we have chosen to use a branch if carry ({\tt BC}) comparison, which
 
 
 
is equivalent to a less--than unsigned comparison.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Third, notice how we packed four ALU instructions, two adds, a subtract, and a
 
 
 
conditional branch, after the four store instructions.  These instructions can
 
 
 
complete while the memory unit is busy, preparing us to start the subsequent
 
 
 
load without any further stalls (unless the memory is particularly slow.)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Next, you may wish to notice that the four memory loads within the loop are
 
 
 
followed by the early branching instruction.  As a result, the branch costs
 
 
 
no extra clocks, and the time between the loads at the bottom of the loop
 
 
 
is dominated by the load to store time frame.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Finally, notice how the comparison at the end has been stacked.  By comparing
 
 
 
against one, we can return when there are zero items left, or one item left,
 
 
 
without needing a new comparison.  Hence, zero to three separate values can be
 
 
 
copied using only two compares.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
However, this discussion wouldn't be complete without an example of how
 
 
 
this memory operation would be made even simpler using the direct memory
 
 
 
access controller.  In that case, we can return to C with the code in
 
 
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:memcp-dmac}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
{\tt \#define DMACOPY 0x0fed0000} {\em // Copy memory, largest chunk at a time possible} \\
 
 
 
\\
 
 
 
{\tt void} \= {\tt memcpy\_dma(void *dest, void *src, int len) \{} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // This assumes we have access to the DMA, that the DMA is not}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // busy, and that we are running in system high mode ...}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->dma.len = len;} \= {\em // Set up the DMA }\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->dma.rd  = src;}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->dma.wr  = dst;}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // Command the DMA to start copying} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->dma.ctrl= DMACOPY;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // Note that we take two clocks to set up our PIC.  This is }\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // required because the PIC takes at least a clock cycle to clear.} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->pic = DISABLEALL|SYSINT\_DMA;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // Now that our PIC is actually clear, with no more DMA }\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // interrupt within it, now we enable the DMA interrupt, and}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // only the DMA interrupt.}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->pic = EINT(SYSINT\_DMA);}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // And wait for the DMA to complete.} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip\_wait();}\\
 
 
 
{\tt \}}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Memory Copy code using the DMA}\label{tbl:memcp-dmac}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
For large memory amounts, the cost of this approach will scale at roughly
 
 
 
2~clocks per word transferred.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Notice how much simpler this memory copy has become to write by using the DMA.
 
 
 
But also consider, the system has only one direct memory access controller.
 
 
 
What happens if one task tries to use the controller when it is already in use
 
 
 
by another task?  The result is that the direct memory access controller may
 
 
 
need some special protections to make certain that only one task uses it at a
 
 
 
time---much like any other hardware peripheral.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Memset}
 
 
 
Another example worth discussing is the {\tt memset()} library function.
 
 
 
A straightforward implementation of this function in C might look like
 
 
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:memset-c}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
\hbox to 0.4in{\tt void} \= {\tt *memset(void *s, int c, size\_t n) \{} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt for(size\_t i=0; i<n; i++)} \\
 
 
 
        \> \hspace{0.4in} {\tt *s++ = c;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt return s;}\\
 
 
 
{\tt \}}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Memset code}\label{tbl:memset-c}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
The function is simple enough to handle compile into the assembling listing in
 
 
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:memset-unop}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
{\em ; Upon entry, R0 = return address, R1 = s, R2 = c, R3 = len}\\
 
 
 
{\em ; Cost: Roughly $4+6N$ clocks}\\
 
 
 
{\tt memset:}\\
 
 
 
\hbox to 0.25in{}\=\hbox to 1in{\tt TST R3}\={\em ; Return immediately if len (R3) is zero}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt JMP.Z R0}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt MOV R1,R4} \> {\em ; Keep our return value in R1, use R4 as a local}\\
 
 
 
{\tt memset\_loop:}\>\> {\em ; Here, we know we have at least one more to go}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO R2,(R4)} \> {\em       ; Store one value (no pipelining)} \\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt SUB 1,R3} \> {\em; Subtract during the store}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt JMP.Z R0} \> {\em; Return (during store) if all done}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt ADD 1,R4} \> {\em; Otherwise increment our pointer}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt BRA memset\_loop} {\em ; and repeat}\\
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Memset code, minimally optimized}\label{tbl:memset-unop}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
Note that we grab {\tt R4} as a local variable, so that we can maintain the
 
 
 
source pointer in {\tt R1} as our result upon return.  This is valid, since the
 
 
 
compiler assumes that {\tt R1}--{\tt R4} will be clobbered upon any function
 
 
 
call and so they are not saved.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
You can also see that this straight forward implementation costs about
 
 
 
six clocks per value to be set.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Were we to pipeline the memory accesses, we might choose to unroll the loop
 
 
 
and do something more like Tbl.~\ref{tbl:memset-pipe}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
{\em ; Upon entry, R0 = return address, R1 = s, R2 = c, R3 = len}\\
 
 
 
{\em ; Cost: roughly $20+9\left\lfloor\frac{N}{4}\right\rfloor$}\\
 
 
 
{\tt memset\_pipe:}\\
 
 
 
\hbox to 0.25in{}\=\hbox to 0.6in{\tt MOV}\=\hbox to 1.0in{\tt R1,R4}\={\em ; Make a local copy of *s, so we can return R1}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt CMP}\>{\tt 4,R3}\>{\em ; Jump to non--unrolled section}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt JMP.C}\>{\tt memset\_pipe\_tail}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt SUB}\>{\tt 1,R3}\> {\em ; R3 is now one less than the number to finish}\\
 
 
 
{\tt memset\_pipe\_unrolled:}\>\>\> {\em ; Here, we know we have at least four more to go}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO}\>{\tt R2,(R4)} \> {\em  ; Store our four values, pipelining our}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO}\>{\tt R2,1(R4)} \> {\em ; access across the bus }\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO}\>{\tt R2,2(R4)} \\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO}\>{\tt R2,3(R4)} \\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt SUB}\>{\tt 4,R3} \> {\em; If there are zero left, this will be a -1 result}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt JMP.C}\>{\tt prememset\_pipe\_tail}\> \hbox to 0.5in{}\= {\em; So we can use our LT condition}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt ADD}\>{\tt 4,R4} \> {\em ; Otherwise increment our pointer}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt BRA}\>{\tt memset\_pipe\_loop} {\em ; and repeat using an early branchable instruction}\\
 
 
 
{\tt prememset\_pipe\_tail:} \\
 
 
 
\>    {\tt ADD}\>{\tt 1,R3}\>{\em ; Return our counts left to the run number}\\
 
 
 
{\tt memset\_pipe\_tail:}\>\>\>{\em ; At this point, we have R3=0-3 remaining}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt CMP}\>{\tt 1,R3}   \> {\em ; If there's less than one left}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt JMP.C}\>{\tt R0}   \> {\em ; then return early.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO}\>{\tt R2,(R4)} \> {\em ; If we've got one left, store it}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO.GT}\>{\tt R2,1(R4)} \> {\em ; if two, do a burst store}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt CMP}\>{\tt 3,R3}   \> {\em ; Check if we have another left}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt STO.Z}\>{\tt R2,2(R4)}     \> {\em ; and store it if so.}\\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt JMP}\>{\tt R0}     \> {\em ; Return now that we are complete.}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Memset after loop unrolling, using pipelined memory ops}\label{tbl:memset-pipe}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
Note that, in this example as with the {\tt memcpy} example, our loop variable
 
 
 
is one less than the number of operations remaining.  This is because the ZipCPU
 
 
 
has no less than or equal comparison, but only a less than comparison.  Further,
 
 
 
because the length is given as an unsigned quantity, we {\em only} have a
 
 
 
less than comparison.  By subtracting one from the loop variable, that's
 
 
 
all our comparison needs to be--at least, until the end of the loop.  For
 
 
 
that, we jump to a section one instruction earlier and return our counts
 
 
 
value to the true remaining length.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
You may also notice that, despite the four possibilities in the end game, we
 
 
 
can carefully rearrange the logic to only use two compares.  The first compare
 
 
 
tests against less than one and returns if there are no more sets left.  Using
 
 
 
the same compare, though, we can also know if we have one or more stores left.
 
 
 
Hence, we can create a burst memory operation with one or two stores.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
As one final example, we might also use the DMA for this operation, as with
 
 
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:memset-dma}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
{\tt \#define DMA\_CONSTSRC 0x20000000} {\em // Don't increment the source address}
 
 
 
\\
 
 
 
{\tt void *} \= {\tt memset\_dma(void *s, int c, size\_t len) \{} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // As before, this assumes we have access to the DMA, and that}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // we are running in system high mode ...}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->dma.len = len;} \= {\em // Set up the DMA }\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->dma.rd  = \&c;}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->dma.wr  = s;}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // Command the DMA to start copying, but not to increment the} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // source address during the copy.} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->dma.ctrl= DMACOPY|DMA\_CONSTSRC;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // Note that we take two clocks to set up our PIC.  This is }\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // required because the PIC takes at least a clock cycle to clear.} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->pic = DISABLEALL|SYSINT\_DMA;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // Now that our PIC is actually clear, with no more DMA }\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // interrupt within it, now we enable the DMA interrupt, and}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // only the DMA interrupt.}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip->pic = EINT(SYSINT\_DMA);}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // And wait for the DMA to complete.} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt zip\_wait();}\\
 
 
 
{\tt \}}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Memset code, only this time with the DMA}\label{tbl:memset-dma}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
This is almost identical to the {\tt memcpy} function above that used the
 
 
 
DMA, save that the pointer for the value read is given to be the address
 
 
 
of c, and that the DMA is instructed not to increment its source pointer.
 
 
 
The DMA will still do {\tt len} reads, so the asymptotic performance will never
 
 
 
be less than $2N$ clocks per transfer.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\section{String Operations}
 
 
 
Perhaps one of the immediate questions most folks will have is, how does one
 
 
 
handle string operations on a CPU that only handles 32--bit numbers?  Here we
 
 
 
offer a couple of possibilities.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The first possibility is the easy and natural choice: just define characters
 
 
 
to be 32--bit numbers and ignore the upper 24 bits.  This is the choice made
 
 
 
by the compiler.  Hence, if you compile a simple string compare function,
 
 
 
such as Tbl.~\ref{tbl:str-cmp},
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
\hbox to 0.25in{\tt int} \= {\tt strcmp(const char *s1, const char *s2) \{} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt while(*s1 == *s2)} \\
 
 
 
        \> \hbox to 0.25in{} {\tt s1++, s2++;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt return *s2 - *s1;} \\
 
 
 
{\tt \}}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Example string compare function}\label{tbl:str-cmp}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
string length function, such as Tbl.~\ref{tbl:str-len},
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
{\tt unsigned} \= {\tt strlen(const char *s) \{} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt int ln = 0;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt while(*s++ != 0)} \\
 
 
 
        \> \hbox to 0.25in{} {\tt ln++;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt return ln;} \\
 
 
 
{\tt \}}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Example string compare function}\label{tbl:str-len}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
or string copy function, such as Tbl.~\ref{tbl:str-cpy},
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
{\tt char *} \= {\tt strcpy(char *dest, const char *src) \{} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt char *d = dest;} {\em // Make a working copy of the dest ptr}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt do \{} \\
 
 
 
        \> \hbox to 0.25in{} {\tt *d++ = *src;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt \} while(*src++);} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt return dest;} \\
 
 
 
{\tt \}}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Example string copy function}\label{tbl:str-cpy}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
this is what you will get.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A little work with these functions, and you should be able to optimize them
 
 
 
in a fashion similar to that with memcpy.  This doesn't solve the fundamental
 
 
 
problem, though, of why am I wasting 32--bits for 8--bit quantities?
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
An alternative would be to use a packed string structure.  To pack a string,
 
 
 
one might do something like Tbl.~\ref{tbl:pstr}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
{\tt void} \= {\tt packstr(char *s) \{} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt char *d = s;} \= {\em // Pack our string in place} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt int w;}\>{\em // A holding word to pack things into} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt int k=0;}\>{\em // A count to know when to move to the next word} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt while(*s) \{} \\
 
 
 
        \> \hbox to 0.25in{}\={\tt w = (w<<8)|(*s \& 0x0ff);} \\
 
 
 
        \>\> {\em // After four of these octets, write the result out} \\
 
 
 
        \> \> {\tt if (((++k)\&3)==0) *d++ = w;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt \}} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // But what happens if we never got to the fourth octet}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // in our last word?  We need to clean that up here.}\\
 
 
 
\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // First, shift the partial value all the way up}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt w = (w<<(32-((k\&3)<<3));} {\em // Shift up the last word}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt *d++ = w;} {\em // Store any remaining partial value }\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // If we want to make sure our strings end in zero, we need}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\em // one more step:}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt *d = 0;} {\em // Make sure string ends in a zero.}\\
 
 
 
{\tt \}}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{String packing function}\label{tbl:pstr}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
Notice that our packed string places its first byte in the high order octet
 
 
 
of our first word, that any excess octets in the last word are zeros,
 
 
 
and that there remains a zero word following our string.  With this packed
 
 
 
string approach, compares and copies can proceed four times faster.  As an
 
 
 
example, Tbl.~\ref{tbl:pstr-cmp}
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
\hbox to 0.25in{\tt int} \= {\tt pstrcmp(const char *s1, const char *s2) \{} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt while(*s1 == *s2)} \\
 
 
 
        \> \hbox to 0.25in{} {\tt s1++, s2++;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt return *s2 - *s1;} \\
 
 
 
{\tt \}}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Packed string compare function}\label{tbl:pstr-cmp}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
presents a string compare function for a packed string.  You'll notice that
 
 
 
it doesn't look all that different from a string compare for a non-packed
 
 
 
string.  This is on purpose.  Another example might be a string copy, which
 
 
 
again, wouldn't look all that different.  Getting the number of used 8--bit
 
 
 
octets within a string is a touch more difficult.  In that case, one might
 
 
 
try something like Tbl.~\ref{tbl:pstr-len}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
 
 
{\tt unsigned} \= {\tt pstrlen(const char *s) \{} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt int ln = 0;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt while(*s++ != 0)} \\
 
 
 
        \> \hbox to 0.25in{}\={\tt ln+=4;} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt if (ln) \{}\\
 
 
 
        \>\>    {\em // Touch up the length in case of an incomplete last word} \\
 
 
 
        \>\>    {\tt int lastval = s[-1];}\\
 
 
 
\\
 
 
 
        \>\>    {\tt if ((lastval \& 0x0ff)==0) ln--;}\\
 
 
 
        \>\>    {\tt if ((lastval \& 0x0ffff)==0) ln--;}\\
 
 
 
        \>\>    {\tt if ((lastval \& 0x0ffffff)==0) ln--;}\\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt \}} \\
 
 
 
        \> {\tt return ln;} \\
 
 
 
{\tt \}}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
\caption{Packed string subcharacter length function}\label{tbl:pstr-len}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Example: Context Switch}
 
\section{Context Switch}
 
 
 
 
 
Fundamental to any multiprocessing system is the ability to switch from one
 
Fundamental to any multiprocessing system is the ability to switch from one
 
task to the next.  In the ZipSystem, this is accomplished in one of a couple
 
task to the next.  In the ZipSystem, this is accomplished in one of a couple of
 
ways.  The first step is that an interrupt happens.  Anytime an interrupt
 
ways.  The first step is that an interrupt, trap, or exception takes place.
 
happens, the CPU needs to execute the following tasks in supervisor mode:
 
This will pull the CPU out of user mode and into supervisor mode.  At this
 
 
 
point, the CPU needs to execute the following tasks:
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
\item Check for a trap instruction, or other user exception such as a break,
 
\item Check for the reason, why did we return from user mode?  Did the user
 
        bus error, division by zero error, or floating point exception.  That
 
        execute a trap instruction, or did some other user exception such as a
 
        is, if the user process needs attending then we may not wish to adjust
 
        break, bus error, division by zero error, or floating point exception
 
        the context, check interrupts, or call the scheduler.
 
        occur.  That is, if the user process needs attending then we may not
 
 
 
        wish to adjust the context, check interrupts, or call the scheduler.
 
        Tbl.~\ref{tbl:trap-check}
 
        Tbl.~\ref{tbl:trap-check}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabular}{ll}
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
{\tt return\_to\_user:} \\
 
{\tt while(true) \{} \\
 
&       {\em; The instruction before the context switch processing must} \\
 
        \hbox to 0.25in{}\={\em // The instruction before the context switch processing must} \\
 
&       {\em; be the RTU instruction that enacted user mode in the first} \\
 
\>      {\em // be the RTU instruction that enacted user mode in the first} \\
 
&       {\em; place.  We show it here just for reference.} \\
 
\>      {\em // place.  We show it here just for reference.} \\
 
&       {\tt RTU} \\
 
\>      {\tt zip\_rtu();} \\
 
{\tt trap\_check:} \\
 
\\
 
&       {\tt MOV uCC,R0} \\
 
\>      {\tt if (zip\_ucc() \& (CC\_FAULT)) \{} \\
 
&       {\tt TST \$TRAP \textbar \$BUSERR \textbar \$DIVE \textbar \$FPE,R0} \\
 
\>      \hbox to 0.25in{}\={\em // The user program has experienced an unrecoverable fault and must die.}\\
 
&       {\tt BNZ swap\_out} \\
 
\>\>    {\em // Do something here to kill the task, recover any resources} \\
 
&       {; \em Do something here to execute the trap} \\
 
\>\>            {\em // it was using, and report/record the problem.}\\
 
&       {; \em Don't need to call the scheduler, so we can just return} \\
 
\>\>            \ldots \\
 
&       {\tt BRA return\_to\_user} \\
 
\>      {\tt \} else if (zip\_ucc() \& (CC\_TRAPBIT)) \{} \\
 
\end{tabular}
 
\>\>            {\em // Handle any user request} \\
 
 
 
\>\>            {\tt zip\_restore\_context(userregs);} \\
 
 
 
\>\>            {\em // If the request ID is in uR1, that is now userregs[1]}\\
 
 
 
\>\>            {\tt switch(userregs[1]) \{} \\
 
 
 
\>\>            {\tt case $x$:} {\em // Perform some user requested function} \\
 
 
 
\>\>            \hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\tt break;}\\
 
 
 
\>\>            {\tt \}} \\
 
 
 
\>      {\tt \}}\\
 
 
 
\\
 
 
 
{\tt \}}
 
 
 
\end{tabbing}
 
\caption{Checking for whether the user task needs our attention}\label{tbl:trap-check}
 
\caption{Checking for whether the user task needs our attention}\label{tbl:trap-check}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
        shows the rudiments of this code, while showing nothing of how the
 
        shows the rudiments of this code, while showing nothing of how the
 
        actual trap would be implemented.
 
        actual trap would be implemented.
 
 
 
 
 
You may also wish to note that the instruction before the first instruction
 
You may also wish to note that the instruction before the first instruction
 
in our context swap {\em must be} a return to userspace instruction.
 
in our context swap {\em must be} a return to userspace instruction.
 
Remember, the supervisor process is re--entered where it left off.  This is
 
Remember, the supervisor process is re--entered where it left off.  This is
 
different from many other processors that enter interrupt mode at some vector
 
different from many other processors that enter interrupt mode at some vector
 
or other.  In this case, we always enter supervisor mode right where we last
 
or other.  In this case, we always enter supervisor mode right where we last
 
left.\footnote{The one exception to this rule is upon reset where supervisor
 
left.
 
mode is entered at a pre--programmed wishbone memory address.}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item Capture user counters.  If the operating system is keeping track of
 
\item Capture user accounting counters.  If the operating system is keeping
 
        system usage via the accounting counters, those counters need to be
 
        track of system usage via the accounting counters, those counters need
 
        copied and accumulated into some master counter at this point.
 
        to be copied and accumulated into some master counter at this point.
 
 
 
 
 
\item Preserve the old context.  This involves pushing all the user registers
 
\item Preserve the old context.  This involves recording all of the user
 
        onto the user stack and then copying the resulting stack address
 
        registers to some supervisor memory structure, such as is shown in
 
        into the tasks task structure, as shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:context-out}.
 
        Tbl.~\ref{tbl:context-out}.
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabular}{ll}
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
{\tt swap\_out:} \\
 
{\tt save\_context:} \\
 
&        {\tt MOV -15(uSP),R5} \\
 
\hbox to 0.25in{}\={\tt SUB 1,SP}\hbox to 0.5in{}\= {\em ; Function prologue: create a stack}\\
 
&        {\tt STO R5,stack(R12)} \\
 
\>        {\tt STO R5,(SP)}     \> {\em ; frame and save R5.  (R1-R4 are assumed}\\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR0,R0} \\
 
\>        {\tt MOV uR0,R2}      \> {\em ; to be used and in need of saving.  Then}\\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR1,R1} \\
 
\>        {\tt MOV uR1,R3}      \> {\em ; copy the user registers, four at a time to }\\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR2,R2} \\
 
\>        {\tt MOV uR2,R4}      \> {\em ; supervisor registers, where they can be}\\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR3,R3} \\
 
\>        {\tt MOV uR3,R5}      \> {\em ; stored, while exploiting memory pipelining}\\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR4,R4} \\
 
\>        {\tt STO R2,(R1)}     \>{\em ; Exploit memory pipelining: }\\
 
&        {\tt STO R0,(R5)} {\em ; Exploit memory pipelining: }\\
 
\>        {\tt STO R3,1(R1)}    \>{\em ; All instructions write to same base memory}\\
 
&        {\tt STO R1,1(R5)} {\em ; All instructions write to stack }\\
 
\>        {\tt STO R4,2(R1)}    \>{\em ; All offsets increment by one }\\
 
&        {\tt STO R2,2(R5)} {\em ; All offsets increment by one }\\
 
\>        {\tt STO R5,3(R1)} \\
 
&        {\tt STO R3,3(R5)} {\em ; Longest pipeline is 5 cycles.}\\
 
\>      \ldots {\em ; Need to repeat for all user registers} \\
 
&        {\tt STO R4,4(R5)} \\
 
 
 
        & \ldots {\em ; Need to repeat for all user registers} \\
 
 
 
\iffalse
 
\iffalse
 
&        {\tt MOV uR5,R0} \\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR5,R0} \\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR6,R1} \\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR6,R1} \\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR7,R2} \\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR7,R2} \\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR8,R3} \\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR8,R3} \\
Line 2150... Line 3179... 
&        {\tt STO R1,6(R5) }\\
 
&        {\tt STO R1,6(R5) }\\
 
&        {\tt STO R2,7(R5) }\\
 
&        {\tt STO R2,7(R5) }\\
 
&        {\tt STO R3,8(R5) }\\
 
&        {\tt STO R3,8(R5) }\\
 
&        {\tt STO R4,9(R5)} \\
 
&        {\tt STO R4,9(R5)} \\
 
\fi
 
\fi
 
&        {\tt MOV uR10,R0} \\
 
\>        {\tt MOV uR12,R2}     \> {\em ; Finish copying ... } \\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR11,R1} \\
 
\>        {\tt MOV uSP,R3} \\
 
&        {\tt MOV uR12,R2} \\
 
\>        {\tt MOV uCC,R4} \\
 
&        {\tt MOV uCC,R3} \\
 
\>        {\tt MOV uPC,R5} \\
 
&        {\tt MOV uPC,R4} \\
 
\>        {\tt STO R2,12(R1)}   \> {\em ; and saving the last registers.}\\
 
&        {\tt STO R0,10(R5)}\\
 
\>        {\tt STO R3,13(R1)}   \> {\em ; Note that even the special user registers }\\
 
&        {\tt STO R1,11(R5)}\\
 
\>        {\tt STO R4,14(R1)}   \> {\em ; are saved just like any others. }\\
 
&        {\tt STO R2,12(R5)}\\
 
\>        {\tt STO R5,15(R1)} \\
 
&        {\tt STO R3,13(R5)}\\
 
\>        {\tt LOD (SP),R5}     \> {\em ; Restore our one saved register}\\
 
&        {\tt STO R4,14(R5)} \\
 
\>        {\tt ADD 1,SP}                \> {\em ; our stack frame,} \\
 
&       {\em ; We can skip storing the stack, uSP, since it'll be stored}\\
 
\>        {\tt JMP R0}          \> {\em ; and return }\\
 
&       {\em ; elsewhere (in the task structure) }\\
 
\end{tabbing}
 
\end{tabular}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Storing User Task Context}\label{tbl:context-out}
 
\caption{Example Storing User Task Context}\label{tbl:context-out}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
For the sake of discussion, we assume the supervisor maintains a
 
Since this task is so fundamental, the ZipCPU compiler back end provides
 
pointer to the current task's structure in supervisor register
 
the {\tt zip\_save\_context(int *)} function.
 
{\tt R12}, and that {\tt stack} is an offset to the beginning of this
 
 
 
structure indicating where the stack pointer is to be kept within it.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        For those who are still interested, the full code for this context
 
 
 
        save can be found as an assembler macro within the assembler
 
 
 
        include file, {\tt sys.i}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item Reset the watchdog timer.  If you are using the watchdog timer, it should
 
\item Reset the watchdog timer.  If you are using the watchdog timer, it should
 
        be reset on a context swap, to know that things are still working.
 
        be reset on a context swap, to know that things are still working.
 
        Example code for this is shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:reset-watchdog}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabular}{ll}
 
 
 
\multicolumn{2}{l}{{\tt `define WATCHDOG\_ADDRESS 32'hc000\_0002}}\\
 
 
 
\multicolumn{2}{l}{{\tt `define WATCHDOG\_TICKS 32'd1\_000\_000} {; \em = 10 ms}}\\
 
 
 
&       {\tt LDI WATCHDOG\_ADDRESS,R0} \\
 
 
 
&       {\tt LDI WATCHDOG\_TICKS,R1} \\
 
 
 
&       {\tt STO R1,(R0)}
 
 
 
\end{tabular}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Watchdog Reset}\label{tbl:reset-watchdog}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item Interrupt handling.  An interrupt handler within the Zip System is nothing
 
\item Interrupt handling.  How you handle interrupts on the ZipCPU are up to
 
        more than a task.  At context swap time, the supervisor needs to
 
        you.  You can activate a sleeping task if you like, or for smaller
 
        disable all of the interrupts that have tripped, and then enable
 
        faster interrupt routines, such as copying a character to or from a
 
        all of the tasks that would deal with each of these interrupts.
 
        serial port or providing a sample to an audio port, you might choose
 
        These can be user tasks, run at higher priority than any other user
 
        to do the task within the kernel main loop.  The difference may
 
        tasks.  Either way, they will need to re--enable their own interrupt
 
        depend upon how you have your hardware set up, and how fast the
 
        themselves, if the interrupt is still relevant.
 
        kernel main loop is.
 
 
 
 
 
        An example of this master interrut handling is shown in
 
 
 
        Tbl.~\ref{tbl:pre-handler}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
 
 
\begin{tabular}{ll}
 
 
 
{\tt pre\_handler:} \\
 
 
 
&       {\tt LDI PIC\_ADDRESS,R0 } \\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; Start by grabbing the interrupt state from the interrupt}\\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; controller.  We'll store this into the register R7 so that }\\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; we can keep and preserve this information for the scheduler}\\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; to use later. }\\
 
 
 
&       {\tt LOD (R0),R1} \\
 
 
 
&       {\tt MOV R1,R7 } \\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; As a next step, we need to acknowledge and disable all active}\\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; interrupts. We'll start by calculating all of our active}\\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; interrupts.}\\
 
 
 
&       {\tt AND 0x07fff,R1 } \\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; Put the active interrupts into the upper half of R1} \\
 
 
 
&       {\tt ROL 16,R1 } \\
 
 
 
&       {\tt LDILO 0x0ffff,R1   } \\
 
 
 
&       {\tt AND R7,R1}\\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; Acknowledge and disable active interrupts}\\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; This also disables all interrupts from the controller, so}\\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; we'll need to re-enable interrupts in general shortly } \\
 
 
 
&       {\tt STO R1,(R0) } \\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; We leave our active interrupt mask in R7 so the scheduler can}\\
 
 
 
&       {\em ; release any tasks that depended upon them. } \\
 
 
 
\end{tabular}
 
 
 
\caption{Example checking for active interrupts}\label{tbl:pre-handler}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item Calling the scheduler.  This needs to be done to pick the next task
 
\item Calling the scheduler.  This needs to be done to pick the next task
 
        to switch to.  It may be an interrupt handler, or it may  be a normal
 
        to switch to.  It may be an interrupt handler, or it may  be a normal
 
        user task.  From a priority standpoint, it would make sense that the
 
        user task.  From a priority standpoint, it would make sense that the
 
        interrupt handlers all have a higher priority than the user tasks,
 
        interrupt handlers all have a higher priority than the user tasks,
Line 2242... Line 3223... 
        \item Device drivers, executed with interrupts re-enabled
 
        \item Device drivers, executed with interrupts re-enabled
 
        \item User tasks
 
        \item User tasks
 
        \item The idle task, executed when nothing else is able to execute
 
        \item The idle task, executed when nothing else is able to execute
 
        \end{enumerate}
 
        \end{enumerate}
 
 
 
 
 
        For our purposes here, we'll just assume that a pointer to the current
 
%       For our purposes here, we'll just assume that a pointer to the current
 
        task is maintained in {\tt R12}, that a {\tt JSR scheduler} is
 
%       task is maintained in {\tt R12}, that a {\tt JSR scheduler} is
 
        called, and that the next current task is likewise placed into
 
%       called, and that the next current task is likewise placed into
 
        {\tt R12}.
 
%       {\tt R12}.
 
 
 
 
 
\item Restore the new tasks context.  Given that the scheduler has returned a
 
\item Restore the new tasks context.  Given that the scheduler has returned a
 
        task that can be run at this time, the stack pointer needs to be
 
        task that can be run at this time, the user registers need to be
 
        pulled out of the tasks task structure, placed into the user
 
        read from the memory at the user context pointer and then placed into
 
        register, and then the rest of the user registers need to be popped
 
        the user registers.  An example of this is shown in
 
        back off of the stack to run this task.  An example of this is
 
        Tbl.~\ref{tbl:context-in},
 
        shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:context-in},
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{tabbing}
 
\begin{tabular}{ll}
 
{\tt restore\_context:} \\
 
{\tt swap\_in:} \\
 
\hbox to 0.25in{}\= {\tt SUB 1,SP}\hbox to 0.4in{}\={\em ; Set up a stack frame} \\
 
&       {\tt LOD stack(R12),R5} \\
 
\>      {\tt STO R5,(SP)} \> {\em ; and store a local register onto it.}\\
 
&       {\tt MOV 15(R1),uSP} \\
 
\\
 
        & {\em ; Be sure to exploit the memory pipelining capability} \\
 
\>      {\tt LOD (R1),R2} \> {\em ; By doing four loads at a time, we are }\\
 
&       {\tt LOD (R5),R0} \\
 
\>      {\tt LOD 1(R1),R3} \> {\em ; making sure we are using our pipelined}\\
 
&       {\tt LOD 1(R5),R1} \\
 
\>      {\tt LOD 2(R1),R4} \> {\em ; memory capability. }\\
 
&       {\tt LOD 2(R5),R2} \\
 
\>      {\tt LOD 3(R1),R5} \\
 
&       {\tt LOD 3(R5),R3} \\
 
\>      {\tt MOV R2,uR1} \> {\em ; Once the registers are loaded, copy them }\\
 
&       {\tt LOD 4(R5),R4} \\
 
\>      {\tt MOV R3,uR2} \> {\em ; into the user registers that they need to}\\
 
&       {\tt MOV R0,uR0} \\
 
\>      {\tt MOV R4,uR3} \> {\em ; be placed within.} \\
 
&       {\tt MOV R1,uR1} \\
 
\>      {\tt MOV R5,uR4} \\
 
&       {\tt MOV R2,uR2} \\
 
        \> \ldots {\em ; Need to repeat for all user registers} \\
 
&       {\tt MOV R3,uR3} \\
 
\>      {\tt LOD 12(R1),R2} \> {\em ; Now for our last four registers ...}\\
 
&       {\tt MOV R4,uR4} \\
 
\>      {\tt LOD 13(R5),R3} \\
 
        & \ldots {\em ; Need to repeat for all user registers} \\
 
\>      {\tt LOD 14(R5),R4} \\
 
&       {\tt LOD 10(R5),R0} \\
 
\>      {\tt LOD 15(R5),R5} \\
 
&       {\tt LOD 11(R5),R1} \\
 
\>      {\tt MOV R2,uR12} \> {\em ; These are the special purpose ones, restored }\\
 
&       {\tt LOD 12(R5),R2} \\
 
\>      {\tt MOV R3,uSP} \> {\em ; just like any others.}\\
 
&       {\tt LOD 13(R5),R3} \\
 
\>      {\tt MOV R4,uCC} \\
 
&       {\tt LOD 14(R5),R4} \\
 
\>      {\tt MOV R5,uPC} \\
 
&       {\tt MOV R0,uR10} \\
 
 
 
&       {\tt MOV R1,uR11} \\
 
\>      {\tt LOD (SP),R5} \> {\em ; Restore our saved register, } \\
 
&       {\tt MOV R2,uR12} \\
 
\>      {\tt ADD 1,SP}  \> {\em ; and the stack frame, }\\
 
&       {\tt MOV R3,uCC} \\
 
\>      {\tt JMP R0}    \> {\em ; and return to where we were called from.}\\
 
&       {\tt MOV R4,uPC} \\
 
\end{tabbing}
 
 
 
 
 
&       {\tt BRA return\_to\_user} \\
 
 
 
\end{tabular}
 
 
 
\caption{Example Restoring User Task Context}\label{tbl:context-in}
 
\caption{Example Restoring User Task Context}\label{tbl:context-in}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
        assuming as before that the task
 
        Because this is such an important task, the ZipCPU GCC provides a
 
        pointer is found in supervisor register {\tt R12}.
 
        built--in function, {\tt zip\_restore\_context(int *)}, which can be
 
        As with storing the user context, the full code associated with
 
        used for this task.
 
        restoring the user context can be found in the assembler include
 
 
 
        file, {\tt sys.i}.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item Clear the userspace accounting registers.  In order to keep track of
 
\item Clear the userspace accounting registers.  In order to keep track of
 
        per process system usage, these registers need to be cleared before
 
        per process system usage, these registers need to be cleared before
 
        reactivating the userspace process.  That way, upon the next
 
        reactivating the userspace process.  That way, upon the next
 
        interrupt, we'll know how many clocks the userspace program has
 
        interrupt, we'll know how many clocks the userspace program has
 
        encountered, and how many instructions it was able to issue in
 
        encountered, and how many instructions it was able to issue in
 
        those many clocks.
 
        those many clocks.
 
 
 
 
 
\item Jump back to the instruction just before saving the last tasks context,
 
\item Return back to the top of our loop in order to execute {\tt zip\_rtu()}
 
        because that location in memory contains the return from interrupt
 
        again.
 
        command that we are going to need to execute, in order to guarantee
 
 
 
        that we return back here again.
 
 
 
\end{enumerate}
 
\end{enumerate}
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\chapter{Registers}\label{chap:regs}
 
\chapter{Registers}\label{chap:regs}
 
 
 
This chapter covers the definitions and locations of the various registers
 
 
 
associated with both the ZipSystem, and the ZipCPU contained within it.
 
 
 
These registers fall into two separate categories: the registers belonging
 
 
 
to the ZipSystem, and then the two debug port registers belonging to the CPU
 
 
 
itself.  In this chapter, we'll discuss the ZipSystem peripheral registers
 
 
 
first, followed by the two ZipCPU registers.
 
 
 
 
 
The ZipSystem registers fall into two categories, ZipSystem internal registers
 
 
 
accessed via the ZipCPU shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:zpregs},
 
\section{ZipSystem Peripheral Registers}
 
 
 
The ZipSystem maintains currently maintains 20 register locations, as shown
 
 
 
in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:zpregs}.
 
\begin{table}[htbp]
 
\begin{table}[htbp]
 
\begin{center}\begin{reglist}
 
\begin{center}\begin{reglist}
 
PIC   & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000000} & 32 & R/W & Primary Interrupt Controller \\\hline
 
PIC   & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000000} & 32 & R/W & Primary Interrupt Controller \\\hline
 
WDT   & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000001} & 32 & R/W & Watchdog Timer \\\hline
 
WDT   & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000001} & 32 & R/W & Watchdog Timer \\\hline
 
  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000002} & 32 & R & Address of last bus error \\\hline
 
WBU&\scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000002} & 32 & R & Address of last bus timeout error\\\hline
 
CTRIC & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000003} & 32 & R/W & Secondary Interrupt Controller \\\hline
 
CTRIC & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000003} & 32 & R/W & Secondary Interrupt Controller \\\hline
 
TMRA  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000004} & 32 & R/W & Timer A\\\hline
 
TMRA  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000004} & 32 & R/W & Timer A\\\hline
 
TMRB  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000005} & 32 & R/W & Timer B\\\hline
 
TMRB  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000005} & 32 & R/W & Timer B\\\hline
 
TMRC  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000006} & 32 & R/W & Timer C\\\hline
 
TMRC  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000006} & 32 & R/W & Timer C\\\hline
 
JIFF  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000007} & 32 & R/W & Jiffies \\\hline
 
JIFF  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000007} & 32 & R/W & Jiffies \\\hline
Line 2334... Line 3317... 
DMADST  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000013} & 32 & R/W & DMA destination address\\\hline
 
DMADST  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0000013} & 32 & R/W & DMA destination address\\\hline
 
% Cache  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0100000} & & & Base address of the Cache memory\\\hline
 
% Cache  & \scalebox{0.8}{\tt 0xc0100000} & & & Base address of the Cache memory\\\hline
 
\end{reglist}
 
\end{reglist}
 
\caption{Zip System Internal/Peripheral Registers}\label{tbl:zpregs}
 
\caption{Zip System Internal/Peripheral Registers}\label{tbl:zpregs}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
and the two debug registers shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:dbgregs}.
 
These registers are located in the CPU's address space, although in a special
 
\begin{table}[htbp]
 
area of that space.  Indeed, the area is so special, that the CPU decodes
 
\begin{center}\begin{reglist}
 
the address space location before placing the request onto the bus.  For
 
ZIPCTRL & 0 & 32 & R/W & Debug Control Register \\\hline
 
this reason, other containers for the CPU, such as the ZipBones which doesn't
 
ZIPDATA & 1 & 32 & R/W & Debug Data Register \\\hline
 
have these registers, will still create errors when they are referenced.
 
\end{reglist}
 
 
 
\caption{Zip System Debug Registers}\label{tbl:dbgregs}
 
Here in this section, we'll walk through the definition of each of these
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
registers in turn, together with any bit fields that may be associated with
 
 
 
them, and how to set those fields.
 
\section{Peripheral Registers}
 
 
 
The peripheral registers, listed in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:zpregs}, are shown in the
 
 
 
CPU's address space.  These may be accessed by the CPU at these addresses,
 
 
 
and when so accessed will respond as described in Chapt.~\ref{chap:periph}.
 
 
 
These registers will be discussed briefly again here.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Interrupt Controller(s)}
 
\subsection{Interrupt Controller(s)}
 
The Zip CPU Interrupt controller has four different types of bits, as shown in
 
Any CPU with only a single interrupt line, such as the ZipCPU, really needs an
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:picbits}.
 
interrupt controller to give it access to more than the single interrupt.  The
 
 
 
ZipCPU is no different.  When the ZipCPU is built as part of the ZipSystem,
 
 
 
this interrupt controller comes integrated into the system.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Looking into the bits that define this controller, you can see from
 
 
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:picbits},
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
31 & R/W & Master Interrupt Enable\\\hline
 
31 & R/W & Master Interrupt Enable\\\hline
 
30\ldots 16 & R/W & Interrupt Enables, write `1' to change\\\hline
 
30\ldots 16 & R/W & Interrupt Enable lines\\\hline
 
15 & R & Current Master Interrupt State\\\hline
 
15 & R & Current Master Interrupt State\\\hline
 
15\ldots 0 & R/W & Input Interrupt states, write `1' to clear\\\hline
 
15\ldots 0 & R/W & Input Interrupt states, write `1' to clear\\\hline
 
\end{bitlist}
 
\end{bitlist}
 
\caption{Interrupt Controller Register Bits}\label{tbl:picbits}
 
\caption{Interrupt Controller Register Bits}\label{tbl:picbits}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
that the ZipCPU Interrupt controller has four different types of bits.
 
The high order bit, or bit--31, is the master interrupt enable bit.  When this
 
The high order bit, or bit--31, is the master interrupt enable bit.  When this
 
bit is set, then any time an interrupt occurs the CPU will be interrupted and
 
bit is set, then any time an interrupt occurs the CPU will be interrupted and
 
will switch to supervisor mode, etc.
 
will switch to supervisor mode, etc.
 
 
 
 
 
Bits 30~\ldots 16 are interrupt enable bits.  Should the interrupt line go
 
Bits 30~\ldots 16 are interrupt enable bits.  Should the interrupt line ever be
 
hi while enabled, an interrupt will be generated.  (All interrupts are positive
 
high while enabled, an interrupt will be generated.  Further, interrupts are
 
edge triggered.)  To set an interrupt enable bit, one needs to write the
 
level triggered.  Hence, if the interrupt is cleared while the line feeding
 
master interrupt enable while writing a `1' to this the bit.  To clear, one
 
the controller remains high, then the interrupt will re--trip.  To set one of
 
need only write a `0' to the master interrupt enable, while leaving this line
 
these interrupt enable bits, one needs to write the master interrupt enable
 
high.
 
while writing a `1' to this the bit.  To clear, one need only write a `0' to
 
 
 
the master interrupt enable, while leaving this line high.
 
 
 
 
 
Bits 15\ldots 0 are the current state of the interrupt vector.  Interrupt lines
 
Bits 15\ldots 0 are the current state of the interrupt vector.  Interrupt lines
 
trip when they go high, and remain tripped until they are acknowledged.  If
 
trip whenever they are high, and remain tripped until the input is lowered and
 
the interrupt goes high for longer than one pulse, it may be high when a clear
 
the interrupt is acknowledged.  Thus, if the interrupt line is high when the
 
is requested.  If so, the interrupt will not clear.  The line must go low
 
controller receives a clear request, then the interrupt will not clear.
 
again before the status bit can be cleared.
 
The incoming line must go low again before the status bit can be cleared.
 
 
 
 
 
As an example, consider the following scenario where the Zip CPU supports four
 
As an example, consider the following scenario where the Zip CPU supports four
 
interrupts, 3\ldots0.
 
interrupts, 3\ldots0.
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
\item The Supervisor will first, while in the interrupts disabled mode,
 
\item The Supervisor will first, while in the interrupts disabled mode,
Line 2405... Line 3390... 
\item The supervisor will then leave interrupt mode, possibly adjusting
 
\item The supervisor will then leave interrupt mode, possibly adjusting
 
        whichever task is running, by executing a return from interrupt
 
        whichever task is running, by executing a return from interrupt
 
        command.
 
        command.
 
\end{enumerate}
 
\end{enumerate}
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Timer Register}
 
\subsection{Timer Register}\label{sec:reg-timer}
 
 
 
 
 
Leaving the interrupt controller, we show the timer registers bit definitions
 
Leaving the interrupt controller, we show the timer registers bit definitions
 
in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:tmrbits}.
 
in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:tmrbits}.
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
\begin{bitlist}
Line 2425... Line 3410... 
In this mode, upon setting its interrupt bit for one cycle, the timer will
 
In this mode, upon setting its interrupt bit for one cycle, the timer will
 
also reset itself back to the value of the timer that was written to it when
 
also reset itself back to the value of the timer that was written to it when
 
the auto--reload option was written to it.  To clear and stop the timer,
 
the auto--reload option was written to it.  To clear and stop the timer,
 
just simply write a `32'h00' to this register.
 
just simply write a `32'h00' to this register.
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Jiffies}
 
\subsection{Jiffies}\label{sec:reg-jiffies}
 
 
 
 
 
The Jiffies register is somewhat similar in that the register always changes.
 
The Jiffies register is first and foremost a counter.  It counts up one on
 
In this case, the register counts up, whereas the timer always counted down.
 
every clock.  Reads from this register, as shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:jiffybits},
 
Reads from this register, as shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:jiffybits},
 
 
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
31\ldots 0 & R & Current jiffy value\\\hline
 
31\ldots 0 & R & Current jiffy value\\\hline
 
31\ldots 0 & W & Value/time of next interrupt\\\hline
 
31\ldots 0 & W & Value/time of next interrupt\\\hline
 
\end{bitlist}
 
\end{bitlist}
 
\caption{Jiffies Register Bits}\label{tbl:jiffybits}
 
\caption{Jiffies Register Bits}\label{tbl:jiffybits}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
always return the time value contained in the register.  Writes greater than
 
always return the time value contained in the register.
 
the current Jiffy value, that is where the new value minus the old value is
 
 
 
greater than zero while ignoring truncation, will set a new Jiffy interrupt
 
The register accepts writes as well.  Writes to the register set the time of
 
time.  At that time, the Jiffy vector will clear, and another interrupt time
 
the next Jiffy interrupt.  If the next interrupt is between 0~and $2^{31}$
 
may either be written to it, or it will just continue counting without
 
clocks in the past, the peripheral will immediately create an interrupt.
 
activating any more interrupts.
 
Otherwise, the register will compare the new value against the currently
 
 
 
stored interrupt value.  The value nearest in time to the current jiffies value
 
 
 
will be kept, and so the jiffies register will trip at that value.  Prior
 
 
 
values are forgotten.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
When the Jiffy counter value equals the value in its trigger register, then
 
 
 
the jiffies peripheral will trigger an interrupt.  At this point, the internal
 
 
 
register is cleared.  It will create no more interrupts unless a new value
 
 
 
is written to it.
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{Performance Counters}
 
\subsection{Performance Counters}
 
 
 
 
 
The Zip CPU also supports several counter peripherals, mostly in the way of
 
The ZipCPU also supports several counter peripherals, mostly for the purpose of
 
process accounting.  This peripherals have a single register associated with
 
process accounting.  These counters each contain a single register, as shown
 
them, shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:ctrbits}.
 
in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:ctrbits}.
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
31\ldots 0 & R/W & Current counter value\\\hline
 
31\ldots 0 & R/W & Current counter value\\\hline
 
\end{bitlist}
 
\end{bitlist}
 
\caption{Counter Register Bits}\label{tbl:ctrbits}
 
\caption{Counter Register Bits}\label{tbl:ctrbits}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
Writes to this register set the new counter value.  Reads read the current
 
Writes to this register set the new counter value.  Reads read the current
 
counter value.
 
counter value.
 
 
 
 
 
The current design operation of these counters is that of performance counting.
 
These counters can be configured to count upwards upon any event.  Using this
 
 
 
capability, eight counters have been assigned the task of performance counting.
 
Two sets of four registers are available for keeping track of performance.
 
Two sets of four registers are available for keeping track of performance.
 
The first is a task counter.  This just counts clock ticks.  The second
 
The first set tracks master performance, including both supervisor as well as
 
counter is a prefetch stall counter, then an master stall counter.  These
 
user CPU statistics.  The second set tracks user statistics only, and will not
 
allow the CPU to be evaluated as to how efficient it is.  The fourth and
 
count in supervisor mode.
 
final counter is an instruction counter, which counts how many instructions the
 
 
 
CPU has issued.
 
Of the four registers in each set, the first is a task counter that just counts
 
 
 
clock ticks.  The second counter is a prefetch stall counter, then an master
 
 
 
stall counter.  These allow the CPU to be evaluated as to how efficient it is.
 
 
 
The fourth and final counter in each set is an instruction counter, which
 
 
 
counts how many instructions the CPU has issued.
 
 
 
 
 
It is envisioned that these counters will be used as follows: First, every time
 
It is envisioned that these counters will be used as follows: First, every time
 
a master counter rolls over, the supervisor (Operating System) will record
 
a master counter rolls over, the supervisor (Operating System) will record
 
the fact.  Second, whenever activating a user task, the Operating System will
 
the fact.  Second, whenever activating a user task, the Operating System will
 
set the four user counters to zero.  When the user task has completed, the
 
set the four user counters to zero.  When the user task has completed, the
 
Operating System will read the timers back off, to determine how much of the
 
Operating System will read the timers back off, to determine how much of the
 
CPU the process had consumed.  To keep this accurate, the user counters will
 
CPU the process had consumed.  To keep this accurate, the user counters will
 
only increment when the GIE bit is set to indicate that the processor is
 
only increment when the GIE bit is set to indicate that the processor is
 
in user mode.
 
in user mode.
 
 
 
 
 
\subsection{DMA Controller}
 
\subsection{DMA Controller}\label{sec:reg-dmac}
 
 
 
 
 
The final peripheral to discuss is the DMA controller.  This controller
 
The final peripheral to discuss is the DMA controller.  This controller
 
has four registers.  Of these four, the length, source and destination address
 
has four registers.  Of these four, the length, source and destination address
 
registers should need no further explanation.  They are full 32--bit registers
 
registers should need no further explanation.  They are full 32--bit registers
 
specifying the entire transfer length, the starting address to read from, and
 
specifying the entire transfer length, the starting address to read from, and
Line 2489... Line 3486... 
 
 
 
 
The bit allocation of the control register is shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:dmacbits}.
 
The bit allocation of the control register is shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:dmacbits}.
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
31 & R & DMA Active\\\hline
 
31 & R & DMA Active\\\hline
 
30 & R & Wishbone error, transaction aborted.  This bit is cleared the next time
 
30 & R & Wishbone error, transaction aborted.  This bit is cleared the next
 
        this register is written to.\\\hline
 
        time this register is written to.\\\hline
 
29 & R/W & Set to `1' to prevent the controller from incrementing the source address, `0' for normal memory copy. \\\hline
 
29 & R/W & Set to `1' to prevent the controller from incrementing the source
 
 
 
        address, `0' for normal memory copy. \\\hline
 
28 & R/W & Set to `1' to prevent the controller from incrementing the
 
28 & R/W & Set to `1' to prevent the controller from incrementing the
 
        destination address, `0' for normal memory copy. \\\hline
 
        destination address, `0' for normal memory copy. \\\hline
 
27 \ldots 16 & W & The DMA Key.  Write a 12'hfed to these bits to start the
 
27 \ldots 16 & W & The DMA Key.  Write a 12'hfed to these bits to start the
 
        activate any DMA transfer.  \\\hline
 
        activate any DMA transfer.  \\\hline
 
27 & R & Always reads `0', to force the deliberate writing of the key. \\\hline
 
27 & R & Always reads `0', to force the deliberate writing of the key. \\\hline
 
26 \ldots 16 & R & Indicates the number of items in the transfer buffer that
 
26 \ldots 16 & R & Indicates the number of items in the transfer buffer that
 
        have yet to be written. \\\hline
 
        have yet to be written. \\\hline
 
15 & R/W & Set to `1' to trigger on an interrupt, or `0' to start immediately
 
15 & R/W & Set to `1' to trigger on an interrupt, or `0' to start immediately
 
        upon receiving a valid key.\\\hline
 
        upon receiving a valid key.\\\hline
 
14\ldots 10 & R/W & Select among one of 32~possible interrupt lines.\\\hline
 
14\ldots 10 & R/W & Select among one of 32~possible interrupt lines.\\\hline
 
9\ldots 0 & R/W & Intermediate transfer length minus one.  Thus, to transfer
 
9\ldots 0 & R/W & Intermediate transfer length.  Thus, to transfer
 
        one item at a time set this value to 0. To transfer 1024 at a time,
 
        one item at a time set this value to 1. To transfer the maximum number,
 
        set it to 1023.\\\hline
 
        1024, at a time set it to 0.\\\hline
 
\end{bitlist}
 
\end{bitlist}
 
\caption{DMA Control Register Bits}\label{tbl:dmacbits}
 
\caption{DMA Control Register Bits}\label{tbl:dmacbits}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
This control register has been designed so that the common case of memory
 
This control register has been designed so that the common case of memory
 
access need only set the key and the transfer length.  Hence, writing a
 
access need only set the key and the transfer length.  Hence, writing a
 
\hbox{32'h0fed03ff} to the control register will start any memory transfer.
 
\hbox{32'h0fed0000} to the control register will start any memory transfer.
 
On the other hand, if you wished to read from a serial port (constant address)
 
On the other hand, if you wished to read from a serial port (constant address)
 
and put the result into a buffer every time a word was available, you
 
and put the result into a buffer every time a word was available, you
 
might wish to write \hbox{32'h2fed8000}--this assumes, of course, that you
 
might wish to write \hbox{32'h2fed8001}--this assumes, of course, that you
 
have a serial port wired to the zero bit of this interrupt control.  (The
 
have a serial port wired to the zero bit of this interrupt control.  (The
 
DMA controller does not use the interrupt controller, and cannot clear
 
DMA controller does not use the interrupt controller, and cannot clear
 
interrupts.)  As a third example, if you wished to write to an external
 
interrupts.)  As a third example, if you wished to write to an external
 
FIFO anytime it was less than half full (had fewer than 512 items), and
 
FIFO anytime it was less than half full (had fewer than 512 items), and
 
interrupt line 3 indicated this condition, you might wish to issue a
 
interrupt line 3 indicated this condition, you might wish to issue a
 
\hbox{32'h1fed8dff} to this port.
 
\hbox{32'h1fed8dff} to this port.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{Debug Port Registers}
 
\section{Debug Port Registers}\label{sec:reg-debug}
 
Accessing the Zip System via the debug port isn't as straight forward as
 
Accessing the Zip System via the debug port isn't as straight forward as
 
accessing the system via the wishbone bus.  The debug port itself has been
 
accessing the system via the wishbone bus.  The debug port itself has been
 
reduced to two addresses, as outlined earlier in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:dbgregs}.
 
reduced to two addresses, as outlined earlier in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:dbgregs}.
 
 
 
\begin{table}[htbp]
 
 
 
\begin{center}\begin{reglist}
 
 
 
ZIPCTRL & 0 & 32 & R/W & Debug Control Register \\\hline
 
 
 
ZIPDATA & 1 & 32 & R/W & Debug Data Register \\\hline
 
 
 
\end{reglist}
 
 
 
\caption{ZipSystem Debug Registers}\label{tbl:dbgregs}
 
 
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
 
 
Access to the Zip System begins with the Debug Control register, shown in
 
Access to the Zip System begins with the Debug Control register, shown in
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:dbgctrl}.
 
Tbl.~\ref{tbl:dbgctrl}.
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{table}\begin{center}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
\begin{bitlist}
 
31\ldots 14 & R & External interrupt state.  Bit 14 is valid for one
 
31\ldots 14 & R & External interrupt state.  Bit 14 is valid for one
Line 2570... Line 3576... 
uSP & 29 & 32 & R/W & User Stack Pointer\\\hline
 
uSP & 29 & 32 & R/W & User Stack Pointer\\\hline
 
uCC & 30 & 32 & R/W & User Condition Code Register \\\hline
 
uCC & 30 & 32 & R/W & User Condition Code Register \\\hline
 
uPC & 31 & 32 & R/W & User Program Counter\\\hline
 
uPC & 31 & 32 & R/W & User Program Counter\\\hline
 
PIC & 32 & 32 & R/W & Primary Interrupt Controller \\\hline
 
PIC & 32 & 32 & R/W & Primary Interrupt Controller \\\hline
 
WDT & 33 & 32 & R/W & Watchdog Timer\\\hline
 
WDT & 33 & 32 & R/W & Watchdog Timer\\\hline
 
BUS & 34 & 32 & R & Last Bus Error\\\hline
 
WBUS & 34 & 32 & R & Last Bus Error\\\hline
 
CTRIC & 35 & 32 & R/W & Secondary Interrupt Controller\\\hline
 
CTRIC & 35 & 32 & R/W & Secondary Interrupt Controller\\\hline
 
TMRA & 36 & 32 & R/W & Timer A\\\hline
 
TMRA & 36 & 32 & R/W & Timer A\\\hline
 
TMRB & 37 & 32 & R/W & Timer B\\\hline
 
TMRB & 37 & 32 & R/W & Timer B\\\hline
 
TMRC & 38 & 32 & R/W & Timer C\\\hline
 
TMRC & 38 & 32 & R/W & Timer C\\\hline
 
JIFF & 39 & 32 & R/W & Jiffies peripheral\\\hline
 
JIFF & 39 & 32 & R/W & Jiffies peripheral\\\hline
Line 2630... Line 3636... 
                XuLA2--LX25\\\hline
 
                XuLA2--LX25\\\hline
 
Signal Names & \begin{tabular}{ll}
 
Signal Names & \begin{tabular}{ll}
 
                Signal Name & Wishbone Equivalent \\\hline
 
                Signal Name & Wishbone Equivalent \\\hline
 
                {\tt i\_clk} & {\tt CLK\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_clk} & {\tt CLK\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_dbg\_cyc} & {\tt CYC\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_dbg\_cyc} & {\tt CYC\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_dbg\_stb} & {\tt STB\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_dbg\_stb} & {\tt (CYC\_I)\&(STB\_I)} \\
 
                {\tt i\_dbg\_we} & {\tt WE\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_dbg\_we} & {\tt WE\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_dbg\_addr} & {\tt ADR\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_dbg\_addr} & {\tt ADR\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_dbg\_data} & {\tt DAT\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_dbg\_data} & {\tt DAT\_I} \\
 
                {\tt o\_dbg\_ack} & {\tt ACK\_O} \\
 
                {\tt o\_dbg\_ack} & {\tt ACK\_O} \\
 
                {\tt o\_dbg\_stall} & {\tt STALL\_O} \\
 
                {\tt o\_dbg\_stall} & {\tt STALL\_O} \\
Line 2658... Line 3664... 
                XuLA2--LX25\\\hline
 
                XuLA2--LX25\\\hline
 
Signal Names & \begin{tabular}{ll}
 
Signal Names & \begin{tabular}{ll}
 
                Signal Name & Wishbone Equivalent \\\hline
 
                Signal Name & Wishbone Equivalent \\\hline
 
                {\tt i\_clk} & {\tt CLK\_O} \\
 
                {\tt i\_clk} & {\tt CLK\_O} \\
 
                {\tt o\_wb\_cyc} & {\tt CYC\_O} \\
 
                {\tt o\_wb\_cyc} & {\tt CYC\_O} \\
 
                {\tt o\_wb\_stb} & {\tt STB\_O} \\
 
                {\tt o\_wb\_stb} & {\tt (CYC\_O)\&(STB\_O)} \\
 
                {\tt o\_wb\_we} & {\tt WE\_O} \\
 
                {\tt o\_wb\_we} & {\tt WE\_O} \\
 
                {\tt o\_wb\_addr} & {\tt ADR\_O} \\
 
                {\tt o\_wb\_addr} & {\tt ADR\_O} \\
 
                {\tt o\_wb\_data} & {\tt DAT\_O} \\
 
                {\tt o\_wb\_data} & {\tt DAT\_O} \\
 
                {\tt i\_wb\_ack} & {\tt ACK\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_wb\_ack} & {\tt ACK\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_wb\_stall} & {\tt STALL\_I} \\
 
                {\tt i\_wb\_stall} & {\tt STALL\_I} \\
Line 2670... Line 3676... 
                {\tt i\_wb\_err} & {\tt ERR\_I}
 
                {\tt i\_wb\_err} & {\tt ERR\_I}
 
                \end{tabular}\\\hline
 
                \end{tabular}\\\hline
 
\end{wishboneds}
 
\end{wishboneds}
 
\caption{Wishbone Datasheet for the CPU as Master}\label{tbl:wishbone-master}
 
\caption{Wishbone Datasheet for the CPU as Master}\label{tbl:wishbone-master}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
I do not recommend that you connect these together through the interconnect.
 
I do not recommend that you connect these together through the interconnect,
 
 
 
since 1) it doesn't make sense that the CPU should be able to halt itself,
 
 
 
and 2) it helps to be able to reboot the CPU in case something has gone
 
 
 
terribly wrong and the CPU is stalling the entire interconnect.
 
Rather, the debug port of the CPU should be accessible regardless of the state
 
Rather, the debug port of the CPU should be accessible regardless of the state
 
of the master bus.
 
of the master bus.
 
 
 
 
 
You may wish to notice that neither the {\tt LOCK} nor the {\tt RTY} (retry)
 
You may wish to notice that neither the {\tt LOCK} nor the {\tt RTY} (retry)
 
wires have been connected to the CPU's master interface.  If necessary, a
 
wires have been connected to the CPU's master interface.  If necessary, a
 
rudimentary {\tt LOCK} may be created by tying the wire to the {\tt wb\_cyc}
 
rudimentary {\tt LOCK} may be created by tying this wire to the {\tt wb\_cyc}
 
line.  As for the {\tt RTY}, all the CPU recognizes at this point are bus
 
line.  As for the {\tt RTY}, all the CPU recognizes at this point are bus
 
errors---it cannot tell the difference between a temporary and a permanent bus
 
errors---it cannot tell the difference between a temporary and a permanent bus
 
error.
 
error.  Therefore, one might logically OR the bus error and bus retry flags on
 
 
 
input to the CPU if necessary.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The final simplification made of the standard wishbone bus B4 specification, is
 
 
 
that the strobe lines are assumed to be zero in any slave if {\tt CYC\_I} is
 
 
 
zero, and the master is responsible for ensuring that {\tt STB\_O} is never
 
 
 
true when {\tt CYC\_O} is true in order to make this work.  All of the ZipCPU
 
 
 
and ZipSystem masters and peripherals have been created with this assumption.
 
 
 
Converting peripherals that have made this assumption to work with masters
 
 
 
that don't guarantee this property is as simple as anding the slave's
 
 
 
{\tt CYC\_I} and {\tt STB\_I} lines together.  No change needs to be made to
 
 
 
any ZipCPU master, however, in order to access any peripheral that hasn't been
 
 
 
so simplified.
 
 
 
 
 
\chapter{Clocks}\label{chap:clocks}
 
\chapter{Clocks}\label{chap:clocks}
 
 
 
 
 
This core is based upon the Basys--3 development board sold by Digilent.
 
This core has now been tested and proven on the Xilinx Spartan~6 FPGA as well
 
The Basys--3 development board contains one external 100~MHz clock, which is
 
as the Artix--7 FPGA.
 
sufficient to run the Zip CPU core.
 
 
 
\begin{table}[htbp]
 
\begin{table}[htbp]
 
\begin{center}
 
\begin{center}
 
\begin{clocklist}
 
\begin{clocklist}
 
i\_clk & External & 100~MHz & 100~MHz & System clock.\\\hline
 
i\_clk & External & 100~MHz & & System clock, Artix--7/35T\\\hline
 
 
 
 & & 80~MHz & & System clock, Spartan 6\\\hline
 
\end{clocklist}
 
\end{clocklist}
 
\caption{List of Clocks}\label{tbl:clocks}
 
\caption{List of Clocks}\label{tbl:clocks}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{center}\end{table}
 
I hesitate to suggest that the core can run faster than 100~MHz, since I have
 
I hesitate to suggest that the core can run faster than 100~MHz, since I have
 
had struggled with various timing violations to keep it at 100~MHz.  So, for
 
had struggled with various timing violations to keep it at 100~MHz.  So, for
 
now, I will only state that it can run at 100~MHz.
 
now, I will only state that it can run at 100~MHz.
 
 
 
 
 
On a SPARTAN 6, the clock can run successfully at 80~MHz.
 
On a SPARTAN 6, the clock can run successfully at 80~MHz.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A second Artix--7 design on the Digilent's Arty board is limited to 81.25~MHz
 
 
 
by the memory interface generated core used to access SDRAM.
 
 
 
 
 
\chapter{I/O Ports}\label{chap:ioports}
 
\chapter{I/O Ports}\label{chap:ioports}
 
The I/O ports to the Zip CPU may be grouped into three categories.  The first
 
This chapter presents and outlines the various I/O lines in and out of the
 
 
 
ZipSystem.  Since the ZipCPU needs to be a component of such a larger part,
 
 
 
this makes sense.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The I/O ports to the ZipSystem may be grouped into three categories.  The first
 
is that of the master wishbone used by the CPU, then the slave wishbone used
 
is that of the master wishbone used by the CPU, then the slave wishbone used
 
to command the CPU via a debugger, and then the rest.  The first two of these
 
to command the CPU via a debugger, and then the rest.  The first two of these
 
were already discussed in the wishbone chapter.  They are listed here
 
were already discussed in the wishbone chapter.  They are listed here
 
for completeness in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:iowb-master}
 
for completeness in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:iowb-master}
 
\begin{table}
 
\begin{table}
Line 2720... Line 3748... 
{\tt i\_wb\_err}   &  1 & Input  & Bus Error indication\\\hline
 
{\tt i\_wb\_err}   &  1 & Input  & Bus Error indication\\\hline
 
\end{portlist}\caption{CPU Master Wishbone I/O Ports}\label{tbl:iowb-master}\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{portlist}\caption{CPU Master Wishbone I/O Ports}\label{tbl:iowb-master}\end{center}\end{table}
 
and~\ref{tbl:iowb-slave} respectively.
 
and~\ref{tbl:iowb-slave} respectively.
 
\begin{table}
 
\begin{table}
 
\begin{center}\begin{portlist}
 
\begin{center}\begin{portlist}
 
{\tt i\_wb\_cyc}   &  1 & Input & Indicates an active Wishbone cycle\\\hline
 
{\tt i\_dbg\_cyc}   &  1 & Input & Indicates an active Wishbone cycle\\\hline
 
{\tt i\_wb\_stb}   &  1 & Input & WB Strobe signal\\\hline
 
{\tt i\_dbg\_stb}   &  1 & Input & WB Strobe signal\\\hline
 
{\tt i\_wb\_we}    &  1 & Input & Write enable\\\hline
 
{\tt i\_dbg\_we}    &  1 & Input & Write enable\\\hline
 
{\tt i\_wb\_addr}  &  1 & Input & Bus address, command or data port \\\hline
 
{\tt i\_dbg\_addr}  &  1 & Input & Bus address, command or data port \\\hline
 
{\tt i\_wb\_data}  & 32 & Input & Data on WB write\\\hline
 
{\tt i\_dbg\_data}  & 32 & Input & Data on WB write\\\hline
 
{\tt o\_wb\_ack}   &  1 & Output  & Slave has completed a R/W cycle\\\hline
 
{\tt o\_dbg\_ack}   &  1 & Output  & Slave has completed a R/W cycle\\\hline
 
{\tt o\_wb\_stall} &  1 & Output  & WB bus slave not ready\\\hline
 
{\tt o\_dbg\_stall} &  1 & Output  & WB bus slave not ready\\\hline
 
{\tt o\_wb\_data}  & 32 & Output  & Incoming bus data\\\hline
 
{\tt o\_dbg\_data}  & 32 & Output  & Incoming bus data\\\hline
 
\end{portlist}\caption{CPU Debug Wishbone I/O Ports}\label{tbl:iowb-slave}\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{portlist}\caption{CPU Debug Wishbone I/O Ports}\label{tbl:iowb-slave}\end{center}\end{table}
 
 
 
 
 
There are only four other lines to the CPU: the external clock, external
 
There are only four other lines to the CPU: the external clock, external
 
reset, incoming external interrupt line(s), and the outgoing debug interrupt
 
reset, incoming external interrupt line(s), and the outgoing debug interrupt
 
line.  These are shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:ioports}.
 
line.  These are shown in Tbl.~\ref{tbl:ioports}.
 
\begin{table}
 
\begin{table}
 
\begin{center}\begin{portlist}
 
\begin{center}\begin{portlist}
 
{\tt i\_clk} & 1 & Input & The master CPU clock \\\hline
 
{\tt i\_clk} & 1 & Input & The master CPU clock \\\hline
 
{\tt i\_rst} & 1 & Input &  Active high reset line \\\hline
 
{\tt i\_rst} & 1 & Input &  Active high reset line \\\hline
 
{\tt i\_ext\_int} & 1\ldots 16 & Input &  Incoming external interrupts, actual
 
{\tt i\_ext\_int} & 1\ldots 16 & Input &  Incoming external interrupts, actual
 
                value set by implementation parameter \\\hline
 
                value set by implementation parameter.  This is only ever one
 
 
 
                for the ZipBones implementation.\\\hline
 
{\tt o\_ext\_int} & 1 & Output & CPU Halted interrupt \\\hline
 
{\tt o\_ext\_int} & 1 & Output & CPU Halted interrupt \\\hline
 
\end{portlist}\caption{I/O Ports}\label{tbl:ioports}\end{center}\end{table}
 
\end{portlist}\caption{I/O Ports}\label{tbl:ioports}\end{center}\end{table}
 
The clock line was discussed briefly in Chapt.~\ref{chap:clocks}.  We
 
The clock line was discussed briefly in Chapt.~\ref{chap:clocks}.  The reset
 
typically run it at 100~MHz, although we've needed to slow it down to 80~MHz
 
line is an active high reset.  When
 
for some implementations.  The reset line is an active high reset.  When
 
asserted, the CPU will start running again from its {\tt RESET\_ADDRESS} in
 
asserted, the CPU will start running again from its reset address in
 
 
 
memory.  Further, depending upon how the CPU is configured and specifically
 
memory.  Further, depending upon how the CPU is configured and specifically
 
based upon how the {\tt START\_HALTED} parameter is set, the CPU may or may
 
based upon how the {\tt START\_HALTED} parameter is set, the CPU may or may
 
not start running automatically following a reset.  The {\tt i\_ext\_int}
 
not start running automatically following a reset.  The {\tt i\_ext\_int}
 
line is for an external interrupt.  This line may actually be as wide as
 
bus is for set of external interrupt lines to the ZipSystem.  This line may
 
16~external interrupts, depending upon the setting of
 
actually be as wide as 16~external interrupts, depending upon the setting of
 
the {\tt EXTERNAL\_INTERRUPTS} parameter.  Finally, the Zip System produces one
 
the {\tt EXTERNAL\_INTERRUPTS} parameter.  Finally, the Zip System produces one
 
external interrupt whenever the entire CPU halts to wait for the debugger.
 
external interrupt whenever the entire CPU halts to wait for the debugger.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The I/O lines to the ZipBones package are identical to those of the ZipSystem,
 
 
 
with the only exception that the ZipBones package has only a single interrupt
 
 
 
line input.  This means that the ZipBones implementation practically depends
 
 
 
upon an external interrupt controller.
 
 
 
 
 
\chapter{Initial Assessment}\label{chap:assessment}
 
\chapter{Initial Assessment}\label{chap:assessment}
 
 
 
 
 
Having now worked with the Zip CPU for a while, it is worth offering an
 
Having now worked with the Zip CPU for a while, it is worth offering an
 
honest assessment of how well it works and how well it was designed. At the
 
honest assessment of how well it works and how well it was designed. At the
 
end of this assessment, I will propose some changes that may take place in a
 
end of this assessment, I will propose some changes that may take place in a
 
later version of this Zip CPU to make it better.
 
later version of this Zip CPU to make it better.
 
 
 
 
 
\section{The Good}
 
\section{The Good}
 
\begin{itemize}
 
\begin{itemize}
 
\item The Zip CPU can be configured to be relatively light weight and fully
 
\item The ZipCPU was designed to be a simple and light weight CPU.  It has
 
        featured as it exists today. For anyone who wishes to build a general
 
        achieved this end nicely.  The proof of this is the full multitasking
 
        purpose CPU and then to experiment with building and adding particular
 
        operating system built for Digilent's CMod S6 board, based around
 
        features, the Zip CPU makes a good starting point--it is fairly simple.
 
        a very small Spartan~6/LX4 FPGA.
 
        Modifications should be simple enough.  Indeed, a non--pipelined
 
 
 
        version of the bare ZipBones (with no peripherals) has been built that
 
        As a result, the ZipCPU also makes a good starting point for anyone
 
        only uses 1.1k~LUTs.  When using pipelining, the full cache, and all
 
        who wishes to build a general purpose CPU and then to experiment with
 
        of the peripherals, the ZipSystem can top 5~k LUTs.  Where it fits
 
        building and adding particular features.  Modifications should be
 
        in between is a function of your needs.
 
        simple enough.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        Indeed, a non--pipelined version of the bare ZipBones (with no
 
 
 
        peripherals) has been built that only uses 1.3k~6--LUTs.  When using
 
 
 
        pipelining, the full cache, and all of the peripherals, the ZipSystem
 
 
 
        can take up to 4.5~k LUTs.  Where it fits in between is a function of
 
 
 
        your needs.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        A new implementation using an iCE40 FPGA suggests that the ZipCPU
 
 
 
        will fit within the 4k~4--way LUTs of the iCE40 HK4X FPGA, but only
 
 
 
        just barely.
 
 
 
 
 
\item The Zip CPU was designed to be an implementable soft core that could be
 
\item The Zip CPU was designed to be an implementable soft core that could be
 
        placed within an FPGA, controlling actions internal to the FPGA. It
 
        placed within an FPGA, controlling actions internal to the FPGA. It
 
        fits this role rather nicely. It does not fit the role of a system on
 
        fits this role rather nicely. It does not fit the role of a general
 
        a chip very well, but then it was never intended to be a system on a
 
        purpose CPU replacement very well: it has no octet level access,
 
        chip but rather a system within a chip.
 
        no double--precision floating point capability, neither does it have
 
 
 
        vector registers and operations.  However, it was never designed to be
 
 
 
        such a general purpose CPU but rather a system within a chip.
 
 
 
 
 
\item The extremely simplified instruction set of the Zip CPU was a good
 
\item The extremely simplified instruction set of the Zip CPU was a good
 
        choice. Although it does not have many of the commonly used
 
        choice. Although it does not have many of the commonly used
 
        instructions, PUSH, POP, JSR, and RET among them, the simplified
 
        instructions, PUSH, POP, JSR, and RET among them, the simplified
 
        instruction set has demonstrated an amazing versatility. I will contend
 
        instruction set has demonstrated an amazing versatility. I will contend
 
        therefore and for anyone who will listen, that this instruction set
 
        therefore and for anyone who will listen, that this instruction set
Line 2787... Line 3834... 
        to do with two exceptions: bytewise character access and accelerated
 
        to do with two exceptions: bytewise character access and accelerated
 
        floating-point support.
 
        floating-point support.
 
\item This simplified instruction set is easy to decode.
 
\item This simplified instruction set is easy to decode.
 
\item The simplified bus transactions (32-bit words only) were also very easy
 
\item The simplified bus transactions (32-bit words only) were also very easy
 
        to implement.
 
        to implement.
 
\item The pipelined load/store approach is novel, and can be used to greatly
 
\item The burst load/store approach using the wishbone pipelining mode is
 
        increase the speed of the processor.
 
        novel, and can be used to greatly increase the speed of the processor.
 
\item The novel approach of having a single interrupt vector, which just
 
\item The novel approach to interrupts greatly facilitates the development of
 
        brings the CPU back to the instruction it left off at within the last
 
        interrupt handlers from within high level languages.
 
        interrupt context doesn't appear to have been that much of a problem.
 
 
 
        If most modern systems handle interrupt vectoring in software anyway,
 
        The approach involves a single interrupt ``vector'' only, and simply
 
        why maintain hardware support for it?
 
        switches the CPU back to the instruction it left off at.  By using
 
 
 
        this approach, interrupt handlers no longer need careful assembly
 
 
 
        language scripting in order to save their context upon any interrupt.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        At the same time, if most modern systems handle interrupt vectoring in
 
 
 
        software anyway, why maintain complicated hardware support for it?
 
 
 
 
 
\item My goal of a high rate of instructions per clock may not be the proper
 
\item My goal of a high rate of instructions per clock may not be the proper
 
        measure. For example, if instructions are being read from a SPI flash
 
        measure of this CPU. For example, if instructions are being read from a
 
        device, such as is common among FPGA implementations, these same
 
        SPI flash device, such as is common among FPGA implementations, these
 
        instructions may suffer stalls of between 64 and 128 cycles per
 
        same instructions may suffer stalls of between 64 and 128 cycles per
 
        instruction just to read the instruction from the flash. Executing the
 
        instruction just to read the instruction from the flash. Executing the
 
        instruction in a single clock cycle is no longer the appropriate
 
        instruction in a single clock cycle is no longer the appropriate
 
        measure. At the same time, it should be possible to use the DMA
 
        measure. At the same time, it should be possible to use the DMA
 
        peripheral to copy instructions from the FLASH to a temporary memory
 
        peripheral to copy instructions from the FLASH to a temporary memory
 
        location, after which they may be executed at a single instruction
 
        location, after which they may be executed at a single instruction
 
        cycle per access again.
 
        cycle per access again.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item Both GCC and binutils back ends exist for the ZipCPU.
 
\end{itemize}
 
\end{itemize}
 
 
 
 
 
\section{The Not so Good}
 
\section{The Not so Good}
 
\begin{itemize}
 
\begin{itemize}
 
\item The CPU has no character support. This is both good and bad.
 
\item The CPU has no octet (character) support. This is both good and bad.
 
        Realistically, the CPU works just fine without it. Characters can be
 
        Realistically, the CPU works just fine without it. Characters can be
 
        supported as subsets of 32-bit words without any problem. Practically,
 
        supported as subsets of 32-bit words without any problem. Practically,
 
        though, it will make compiling non-Zip CPU code difficult--especially
 
        though, this creates two problems.  The first is that it makes porting
 
        anything that assumes sizeof(int)=4*sizeof(char), or that tries to
 
        code from non-ZipCPU platforms to the ZipCPU is difficult--especially
 
 
 
        anything that depends upon the existence of {\tt *int8\_t},
 
 
 
        {\tt *int16\_t}, the size difference between
 
 
 
        {\tt sizeof(int)=4*sizeof(char)}, or that tries to
 
        create unions with characters and integers and then attempts to
 
        create unions with characters and integers and then attempts to
 
        reference the address of the characters within that union.
 
        reference the address of the characters within that union.
 
 
 
 
 
\item The Zip CPU does not support a data cache. One can still be built
 
        The second problem is that peripherals that depend upon character
 
        externally, but this is a limitation of the CPU proper as built.
 
        support on the bus may need to be rewritten to work on a 32--bit bus.
 
        Further, under the theory of the Zip CPU design (that of an embedded
 
 
 
        soft-core processor within an FPGA, where any ``address'' may reference
 
 
 
        either memory or a peripheral that may have side-effects), any data
 
 
 
        cache would need to be based upon an initial knowledge of whether or
 
 
 
        not it is supporting memory (cachable) or peripherals. This knowledge
 
 
 
        must exist somewhere, and that somewhere is currently (and by design)
 
 
 
        external to the CPU.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        This may also be written off as a ``feature'' of the Zip CPU, since
 
 
 
        the addition of a data cache can greatly increase the LUT count of
 
 
 
        a soft core.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        The Zip CPU compensates for this via its pipelined load and store
 
\item The ZipCPU does not (yet) support a data cache.  One is currently under
 
        instructions.
 
        development.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        The ZipCPU compensates for this lack via its burst memory capability.
 
 
 
        Further, performance tests using Dhrystone suggest that the ZipCPU is
 
 
 
        no slower than other processors containing a data cache.
 
 
 
 
 
\item Many other instruction sets offer three operand instructions, whereas
 
\item Many other instruction sets offer three operand instructions, whereas
 
        the Zip CPU only offers two operand instructions. This means that it
 
        the Zip CPU only offers two operand instructions. This means that it
 
        takes the Zip CPU more instructions to do many of the same operations.
 
        may take the ZipCPU more instructions to do many of the same operations.
 
        The good part of this is that it gives the Zip CPU a greater amount of
 
        The good part of this is that it gives the Zip CPU a greater amount of
 
        flexibility in its immediate operand mode, although that increased
 
        flexibility in its immediate operand mode, although that increased
 
        flexibility isn't necessarily as valuable as one might like.
 
        flexibility isn't necessarily as valuable as one might like.
 
 
 
 
 
\item The Zip CPU doesn't support out of order execution. I suppose it could
 
        The impact of this lack of three operand instructions is application
 
        be modified to do so, but then it would no longer be the ``simple''
 
        dependent, but does not appear to be too severe.
 
        and low LUT count CPU it was designed to be. The two primary results
 
 
 
        are that 1) loads may unnecessarily stall the CPU, even if other
 
\item The ZipCPU doesn't support out of order execution.
 
        things could be done while waiting for the load to complete, 2)
 
 
 
        bus errors on stores will never be caught at the point of the error,
 
        I suppose it could be modified to do so, but then it would no longer
 
        and 3) branch prediction becomes more difficult.
 
        be the ``simple'' and low LUT count CPU it was designed to be.
 
 
 
 
 
\item Although switching to an interrupt context in the Zip CPU design doesn't
 
\item Although switching to an interrupt context in the Zip CPU design doesn't
 
        require a tremendous swapping of registers, in reality it still
 
        require a tremendous swapping of registers, in reality it still
 
        does--since any task swap still requires saving and restoring all
 
        does--since any task swap (such as swapping to a task waiting on an
 
        16~user registers. That's a lot of memory movement just to service
 
        interrupt) still requires saving and restoring all 16~user registers.
 
        an interrupt.
 
        That's a lot of memory movement just to service an interrupt.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        This isn't nearly as bad as it sounds, however, since most RISC
 
 
 
        architectures have 32~registers that will need to be swapped upon any
 
 
 
        context swap.
 
 
 
 
 
\item The Zip CPU is by no means generic: it will never handle addresses
 
\item The Zip CPU is by no means generic: it will never handle addresses
 
        larger than 32-bits (16GB) without a complete and total redesign.
 
        larger than 32-bits (4GW or 16GB) without a complete and total redesign.
 
        This may limit its utility as a generic CPU in the future, although
 
        This may limit its utility as a generic CPU in the future, although
 
        as an embedded CPU within an FPGA this isn't really much of a limit
 
        as an embedded CPU within an FPGA this isn't really much of a
 
        or restriction.
 
        restriction.
 
 
 
 
 
\item While the Zip CPU has its own assembler, it has no linker and does not
 
\item While a toolchain does exist for the ZipCPU, it isn't yet fully featured.
 
        (yet) support a compiler. The standard C library is an even longer
 
        The ZipCPU has no support for soft floating point arithmetic,
 
        shot. My dream of having binutils and gcc support has not been
 
        nor does it have support for several standard library functions.
 
        realized and at this rate may not be realized. (I've been intimidated
 
        Indeed, full C library support and gdb support are still lacking.
 
        by the challenge everytime I've looked through those codes.)
 
 
 
\end{itemize}
 
\end{itemize}
 
 
 
 
 
\section{The Next Generation}
 
\section{The Next Generation}
 
This section could also be labeled as my ``To do'' list.  Today's list is
 
This section could also be labeled as my ``To do'' list.  It outlines where
 
much different than it was for the last version of this document, as much of
 
you may expect features in the future.  Currently, there are five primary
 
the prior to do list (such as VLIW instructions, and a more traditional
 
items on my to do list:
 
instruction cache) has now been implemented.  The only things really and
 
\begin{enumerate}
 
truly waiting on my list today are assembler support for the VLIW instruction
 
\item Soft Floating Point capability
 
set, linker and compiler support.
 
 
 
 
 
        The lack of any floating point capability, either hard or soft, makes
 
 
 
        porting math software to the ZipCPU difficult.  Simply building a
 
 
 
        soft floating point library will solve this problem.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item A C library.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        The lack of octet support has so far prevented the porting of
 
 
 
        newlib to the ZipCPU platform.  In the end, it may mean that any
 
 
 
        C library implementation for the ZipCPU may be subtly different
 
 
 
        from any you are familiar with.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item A data cache
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        A preliminary data cache implemented as a write through cache has
 
 
 
        been developed.  Adding this into the CPU should require few changes
 
 
 
        internal to the CPU.  I expect future versions of the CPU will permit
 
 
 
        this as an option.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item A Memory Management Unit
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        The first version of such an MMU has already been written.  It is
 
 
 
        available for examination in the ZipCPU repository.  This MMU exists
 
 
 
        as a peripheral of the ZipCPU.  Integrating this MMU into the ZipCPU
 
 
 
        will involve slowing down memory stores so that they can be accomplished
 
 
 
        synchronously, as well as determining how and when particular cache
 
 
 
        lines need to be invalidated.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\item An integrated floating point unit (FPU)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
        Why a small scale CPU needs a hefty floating point unit, I'm not
 
 
 
        certain, but many application contexts require the ability to do
 
 
 
        floating point math.
 
 
 
\end{enumerate}
 
 
 
 
 
Stay tuned, these are likely to be coming next.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
% Appendices
 
 
 
% Index
 
 
 
\end{document}
 
\end{document}
 
 
 
 
 
%
 
%
 
%
 
%
 
% Symbol table relocation types:
 
% Symbol table relocation types:

powered by: WebSVN 2.1.0

© copyright 1999-2024 OpenCores.org, equivalent to Oliscience, all rights reserved. OpenCores®, registered trademark.