URL https://opencores.org/ocsvn/forth-cpu/forth-cpu/trunk
Subversion Repositories forth-cpu

[/] [forth-cpu/] [trunk/] [meta.fth] - Blame information for rev 5

Go to most recent revision | Details | Compare with Previous | View Log

 
\ ========================================================================== \
\                      This file is currently not used!
\ ========================================================================== \
 
\ NOTE: This file was originally from ,
\ and is a metacompiler for the 'embed' virtual machine, it will need porting
\ so it works with the H2, however the embed VM is derived from the simulator
\ for the H2, so porting should be fairly easy.
\ @todo Reformat this file for a column width of 64, into Forth blocks.
 
\ # meta.fth
\
\ | Project    | A Small Forth VM/Implementation   |
\ | ---------- | --------------------------------- |
\ | Author     | Richard James Howe                |
\ | Copyright  | 2017 Richard James Howe           |
\ | License    | MIT                               |
\ | Email      | howe.r.j.89@gmail.com             |
\ | Repository |  |
 
\ ## A Meta-compiler, an implementation of eForth, and a tutorial on both.
 
\ ## Introduction
\ In this file a meta-compiler (or a cross compiler written in Forth) is
\ described and implemented, and after that a working Forth interpreter
\ is both described and implemented. This new interpreter can be used in turn
\ to meta-compile the original program, ad infinitum. The design decisions
\ and the philosophy behind Forth and the system will also be elucidated.
\
\ ### What is Forth?
\
\ Forth is a stack based procedural language, which uses Reverse Polish
\ Notation (RPN) to enter expressions. It is a minimal language with no type
\ checking and little to no error handling depending on the implementation.
\ Despite its small size and simplicity it has various features usually found
\ in higher level languages, such as reflection, incremental compilation and
\ an interactive read-evaluate-print loop.
\
\ It is still at heart a language that is close to the machine with low
\ level capabilities and direct access to memory. Memory manage itself is
\ mostly manual, with preallocation of all needed memory the preferred method
\ of program writing.
\
\ Forth has mostly fallen out of favor in recent years, it performed admirably
\ on the microcomputer systems available in the 1980s and is still suitable
\ for very memory constrained embed systems (having on a few kilobytes of
\ memory available to them), but lacks a lot of features modern languages
\ provide.
\
\ A catalogue of deficiencies hamper Forth adoption; poor string handling,
\ lack of libraries and poor integration with the operating system (on hosted
\ platforms), mutually incompatible and wildly different Forth implementations
\ and as mentioned - little error detection and handling.
\
\ Despite this fact it has a core of adherents who find uses for the language,
\ in fact some of its deficiencies are actually trade-offs. Having no type
\ checking means there is no type checking to do, having very little in the way
\ of error detection means errors do not have to be detected. This off loads
\ the complexity of the problem to the programmer and means a Forth
\ implementation can be minimal and terse.
\
\ The saying "Once you have seen one Forth implementation, you have seen
\ one Forth implementation." comes about because of how easy it is to implement
\ a Forth, which is a double edged sword. It is possible to completely
\ understand a Forth system, the software, the hardware and the problems you
\ are trying to solve and optimize everything towards this goal. This is oft
\ not possible with modern systems, a single person cannot totally understand
\ even subcomponents of modern systems in its entirety (such as compilers
\ or the operating system kernels we use).
\
\ Another saying from the creator of Forth, Charles Moore,
\ "Forth is Sudoku for programmers". The reason the author uses Forth is
\ because it is fun, no more justification is needed.
\
\ ### Project Origins
\
\ This project derives from a simulator for a CPU written in VHDL, designed
\ to execute Forth primitives directly, available on GitHub at,
\ . The CPU and Forth interpreter
\ themselves have their own sources, which all makes for a confusing pedigree.
\ The CPU, called the H2, was derived from a well known Forth CPU written
\ in Verilog, called the J1 , and
\ the Forth running on the H2 comes from an adaption of eForth written
\ for the J1  which itself was derived
\ from 'The Zen of eForth' by C. H. Ting.
\
\ Instead of a metacompiler written in Forth a cross compiler for a Forth like
\ language was made, which could create an image readable by both the
\ simulator, and the FPGA development tools. The simulator was cut down and
\ modified for use on a computer, with new instructions for input and output.
\
\ This system, with a cross compiler and virtual machine written in C, was
\ used to develop the present system which consists of only the virtual
\ machine, a binary image containing a Forth interpreter, and this metacompiler
\ with the metacompiled Forth. These changes and the discarding of the cross
\ compiler written in C can be seen in the Git repository this project comes
\ in ().
\
\ ### The Virtual Machine
\
\ The virtual machine is incredibly simple and cut down at around 200 lines of
\ C code, with most of the code being not being the virtual machine itself,
\ but code to get data in and out of the system correctly, or setting the
\ machine up. It is described in the appendix (at the end of this file), which
\ also contains an example implementation of the virtual machine.
\
\ The virtual machine is 16-bit dual stack machine with an instruction set
\ encoding which allows for many Forth words to be implemented in a single
\ instruction. As the CPU is designed to execute Forth, Subroutine Threaded
\ Code (STC) is the most efficient method of running Forth upon it.
\
\ @todo Complete the introduction
\ - Describe where the Forth came from (from a VHDL CPU project, eForth, ...)
\ - Philosophy of Forth
\   - Simplicity, Factoring, analyzing the problem from all angles, ...
\   - What Forth is good for, and what it is not.
\ - What a meta compiler is
\ - Purpose of this document
\ - A little bit about Forth, a simple introduction
\ - How Vocabularies work
\ - Stack comments, also standardize stack comments
\ - Conventions within Forth, Forth blocks, naming of words (for example
\   using '@' or '!' within word names).
\ - Design tradeoffs and constraints
\   - For example: having a separate string storage area
\   - Limitations of the Virtual Machines code space
\   - Compiler security (depth checking, compile-only words, ... )
\   Some Forths do not bother with it
\   - More modern Forths which optimize more but lose the simplicity
\   of Forth
\   - Lack of user variables, making a ROMable Forth, compression
\   - Making the metacompiler use look like ordinary Forth, so understanding
\   how to put together a Forth interpreter can be done by an ordinary
\   Forth programmer (which complicates the metacompiler, but only a little).
\ - The document should describe both how, and why, things are the
\ way they are. The design decisions are just as important as the decision
\ itself, more so even, as understand the why a decision was made allows
\ you to change or challenge the implementation.
\
\ The project, documentation and Forth images are under an MIT license,
\  and the
\ repository is available at .
 
\ The document is structured in roughly the following order:
\ 1.  The metacompiler
\ 2.  The assembler
\ 3.  Image header generation
\ 4.  Basic Setup, Variables and Special cases
\ 5.  Simple Forth Words, Numeric I/O
\ 6.  Interpreter
\ 7.  Control Words
\ 8.  I/O Control, Boot Words
\ 9. 'See', the Disassembler
\ 10. Block Editor
\ 11. Finishing
\ 12. APPENDIX
 
\ What you are reading is itself a Forth program, all the explanatory text is
\ are Forth comments. The file should eventually be fed through a preprocessor
\ to turn it into a Markdown file for further processing.
\ See  for more information
\ about Markdown.
 
\ Many Forths are written in an assembly language, especially the ones geared
\ towards microcontrollers, although it is more common for new Forth
\ interpreters to be written in C. A metacompiler is a Cross Compiler
\  written in Forth.
 
\ References
\ * 'The Zen of eForth' by C. H. Ting
\ *  (This project)
\ * 
\ * 
\ Jones Forth:
\ * 
\ * 
\ J1 CPU
\ * 
\ * 
\ * 
\ * 
 
\ The Virtual Machine is specifically designed to execute Forth, it is a stack
\ machine that allows many Forth words to be encoded in one instruction but
\ does not contain any high level Forth words, just words like '@', 'r>' and
\ a few basic words for I/O. A full description of the virtual machine is
\ in the appendix.
 
\ ## Metacompilation wordset
\ This section defines the metacompilation wordset as well as the
\ assembler. The metacompiler, or cross compiler, requires some assembly
\ instructions to be defined so the two word sets are interlinked.
\
\ A clear understanding of how Forth vocabularies work is needed before
\ proceeding with the tutorial. Vocabularies are the way Forth manages
\ namespaces and are generally talked about that much, they are especially
\ useful (in fact pretty much required) for writing a metacompiler.
 
only forth definitions hex
variable meta       ( Metacompilation vocabulary )
meta +order definitions
 
variable assembler.1   ( Target assembler vocabulary )
variable target.1      ( Target dictionary )
variable tcp           ( Target dictionary pointer )
variable tlast         ( Last defined word in target )
variable tdoVar        ( Location of doVar in target )
variable tdoConst      ( Location of doConst in target )
variable tdoNext       ( Location of doNext in target )
variable tdoPrintString ( Location of .string in target )
variable tdoStringLit  ( Location of string-literal in target )
variable fence         ( Do not peephole optimize before this point )
1984 constant #version ( Version number )
5000 constant #target  ( Memory location where the target image will be built )
2000 constant #max     ( Max number of cells in generated image )
2    constant =cell    ( Target cell size )
-1   constant optimize ( Turn optimizations on [-1] or off [0] )
 
$4280 constant pad-area    ( area for pad storage )
variable header -1 header ! ( If true Headers in the target will be generated )
 
1   constant verbose   ( verbosity level, higher is more verbose )
#target #max 0 fill    ( Erase the target memory location )
 
: ]asm assembler.1 +order ; immediate ( -- )
: a: get-current assembler.1 set-current : ; ( "name" -- wid link )
: a; [compile] ; set-current ; immediate ( wid link -- )
 
: ( [char] ) parse 2drop ; immediate
: \ source drop @ >in ! ; immediate
: there tcp @ ;         ( -- a : target dictionary pointer value )
: tc! #target + c! ;    ( u a -- )
: tc@ #target + c@ ;    ( a -- u )
: [last] tlast @ ;      ( -- a )
: low  swap-endianess 0= if 1+ then ; ( b -- b )
: high swap-endianess    if 1+ then ; ( b -- b )
: t! over ff and over high tc! swap 8 rshift swap low tc! ; ( u a -- )
: t@ dup high tc@ swap low tc@ 8 lshift or ; ( a -- u )
: 2/ 1 rshift ;                ( u -- u )
: talign there 1 and tcp +! ;  ( -- )
: tc, there tc! 1 tcp +! ;     ( c -- )
: t,  there t!  =cell tcp +! ; ( u -- )
: tallot tcp +! ;              ( n -- )
: update-fence there fence ! ; ( -- )
: $literal                     ( , -- )
  [char] " word count dup tc, 1- for count tc, next drop talign update-fence ;
: tcells =cell * ;             ( u -- a )
: tbody 1 tcells + ;           ( a -- a )
: meta! ! ;                    ( u a -- )
: dump-hex #target there 16 + dump ; ( -- )
: locations ( -- : list all words and locations in target dictionary )
  target.1 @
  begin
    dup
  while
    dup
    nfa count type space dup
    cfa >body @ u. cr
    $3fff and @
  repeat drop ;
 
: display ( -- : display metacompilation and target information )
  verbose 0= if exit then
  hex
  ." COMPILATION COMPLETE" cr
  verbose 1 u> if
    dump-hex cr
    ." TARGET DICTIONARY: " cr
    locations
  then
  ." HOST: "       here        . cr
  ." TARGET: "     there       . cr
  ." HEADER: "     #target 20 dump cr ;
 
: checksum #target there crc ; ( -- u : calculate CRC of target image )
 
: save-hex ( -- : save target binary to file )
   #target #target there + (save) throw ;
 
: finished ( -- : save target image and display statistics )
   display
   only forth definitions hex
   ." SAVING... " save-hex ." DONE! " cr
   ." STACK> " .s cr ;
 
: [a] ( "name" -- : find word and compile an assembler word )
  token assembler.1 search-wordlist 0= abort" [a]? "
  cfa compile, ; immediate
 
: asm[ assembler.1 -order ; immediate ( -- )
 
\ There are five types of instructions, which are differentiated from each
\ other by the top bits of the instruction.
 
a: #literal $8000 a; ( literal instruction - top bit set )
a: #alu     $6000 a; ( ALU instruction, further encoding below... )
a: #call    $4000 a; ( function call instruction )
a: #?branch $2000 a; ( branch if zero instruction )
a: #branch  $0000 a; ( unconditional branch )
 
\ An ALU instruction has a more complex encoding which can be seen in the table
\ in the appendix, it consists of a few flags for moving values to different
\ registers before and after the ALU operation to perform, an ALU operation,
\ and a return and variable stack increment/decrement.
\
\ Some of these operations are more complex than they first appear, either
\ because they do more than a single line explanation allows for, or because
\ they are not typical instructions that you would find in an actual processors
\ ALU and are only possible within the context of a virtual machine. Operations
\ like '#u/mod' are an example of the former, '#save' is an example of the
\ later.
\
\ The most succinct description of these operations, and the virtual machine,
\ is the source code for it which weighs in at under two hundred lines of
\ C code. Unfortunately this would not include that rationale that led to
\ the virtual machine being the way it is.
 
\ ALU Operations
a: #t      0000 a; ( T = t )
a: #n      0100 a; ( T = n )
a: #r      0200 a; ( T = Top of Return Stack )
a: #[t]    0300 a; ( T = memory[t] )
a: #n->[t] 0400 a; ( memory[t] = n )
a: #t+n    0500 a; ( n = n+t, T = carry )
a: #t*n    0600 a; ( n = n*t, T = upper bits of multiplication )
a: #t&n    0700 a; ( T = T and N )
a: #t|n    0800 a; ( T = T  or N )
a: #t^n    0900 a; ( T = T xor N )
a: #~t     0a00 a; ( Invert T )
a: #t-1    0b00 a; ( T == t - 1 )
a: #t==0   0c00 a; ( T == 0? )
a: #t==n   0d00 a; ( T = n == t? )
a: #nu
a: #n
a: #n>>t   1000 a; ( T = n right shift by t places )
a: #n<
a: #sp@    1200 a; ( T = variable stack depth )
a: #rp@    1300 a; ( T = return stack depth )
a: #sp!    1400 a; ( set variable stack depth )
a: #rp!    1500 a; ( set return stack depth )
a: #save   1600 a; ( Save memory disk: n = start, T = end, T' = error )
a: #tx     1700 a; ( Transmit Byte: t = byte, T' = error )
a: #rx     1800 a; ( Block until byte received, T = byte/error )
a: #u/mod  1900 a; ( Remainder/Divide: )
a: #/mod   1a00 a; ( Signed Remainder/Divide: )
a: #bye    1b00 a; ( Exit Interpreter )
 
\ The Stack Delta Operations occur after the ALU operations have been executed.
\ They affect either the Return or the Variable Stack. An ALU instruction
\ without one of these operations (generally) do not affect the stacks.
a: d+1     0001 or a; ( increment variable stack by one )
a: d-1     0003 or a; ( decrement variable stack by one )
a: d-2     0002 or a; ( decrement variable stack by two )
a: r+1     0004 or a; ( increment variable stack by one )
a: r-1     000c or a; ( decrement variable stack by one )
a: r-2     0008 or a; ( decrement variable stack by two )
 
\ All of these instructions execute after the ALU and stack delta operations
\ have been performed except r->pc, which occurs before. They form part of
\ an ALU operation.
a: r->pc   0010 or a; ( Set Program Counter to Top of Return Stack )
a: n->t    0020 or a; ( Set Top of Variable Stack to Next on Variable Stack )
a: t->r    0040 or a; ( Set Top of Return Stack to Top on Variable Stack )
a: t->n    0080 or a; ( Set Next on Variable Stack to Top on Variable Stack )
 
\ There are five types of instructions; ALU operations, branches,
\ conditional branches, function calls and literals. ALU instructions
\ comprise of an ALU operation, stack effects and register move bits. Function
\ returns are part of the ALU operation instruction set.
 
: ?set dup $e000 and abort" argument too large " ;
a: branch  2/ ?set [a] #branch  or t, a; ( a -- : an Unconditional branch )
a: ?branch 2/ ?set [a] #?branch or t, a; ( a -- : Conditional branch )
a: call    2/ ?set [a] #call    or t, a; ( a -- : Function call )
a: ALU        ?set [a] #alu     or    a; ( u -- : Make ALU instruction )
a: alu                    [a] ALU  t, a; ( u -- : ALU operation )
a: literal ( n -- : compile a number into target )
  dup [a] #literal and if   ( numbers above $7fff take up two instructions )
    invert recurse  ( the number is inverted, an literal is called again )
    [a] #~t [a] alu ( then an invert instruction is compiled into the target )
  else
    [a] #literal or t, ( numbers below $8000 are single instructions )
  then a;
a: return ( -- : Compile a return into the target )
   [a] #t [a] r->pc [a] r-1 [a] alu a;
 
\ The following words implement a primitive peephole optimizer, which is not
\ the only optimization done, but is the major one. It performs tail call
\ optimizations and merges the return instruction with the previous instruction
\ if possible. These simple optimizations really make a lot of difference
\ in the size of metacompiled program. It means proper tail recursive
\ procedures can be constructed.
\
\ The optimizer is wrapped up in the "exit," word, it checks a fence variable
\ first, then the previously compiled cell to see if it can replace the last
\ compiled cell.
\
\ The fence variable is an address below which the peephole optimizer should
\ not look, this is to prevent the optimizer looking at data and merging with
\ it, or breaking control structures.
\
\ An exit can be merged into an ALU instruction if it does not contain
\ any return stack manipulation, or information from the return stack. This
\ includes operations such as "r->pc", or "r+1".
\
\ A call then an exit can be replaced with an unconditional branch to the
\ call.
\
\ If no optimization can be performed an 'exit' instruction is written into
\ the target.
\
\ The optimizer can be held off manually be inserting a "nop", or a call
\ or instruction which does nothing, before the 'exit'.
\
\ Other optimizations performed by the metacompiler, but not this optimizer,
\ include; inlining constant values and addresses, allowing the creation of
\ headerless words which are named only in the metacompiler and not in the
\ target, and the 'fallthrough;' word which allows for greater code sharing.
\ Some of these optimizations have a manual element to them, such as
\ 'fallthrough;'.
 
: previous there =cell - ;                      ( -- a )
: lookback previous t@ ;                        ( -- u )
: call? lookback $e000 and [a] #call = ;        ( -- t )
: call>goto previous dup t@ $1fff and swap t! ; ( -- )
: fence? fence @  previous u> ;                 ( -- t )
: safe? lookback $e000 and [a] #alu = lookback $001c and 0= and ; ( -- t )
: alu>return previous dup t@ [a] r->pc [a] r-1 swap t! ; ( -- )
: exit-optimize                                 ( -- )
  fence? if [a] return exit then
  call?  if call>goto  exit then
  safe?  if alu>return exit then
  [a] return ;
: exit, exit-optimize update-fence ;            ( -- )
 
: compile-only tlast @ t@ $8000 or tlast @ t! ; ( -- )
: immediate tlast @ t@ $4000 or tlast @ t! ;    ( -- )
 
\ create a word in the metacompilers dictionary, not the targets
: tcreate get-current >r target.1 set-current create r> set-current ;
 
: thead ( b u -- : compile word header into target dictionary )
  header @ 0= if 2drop exit then
  talign
  there [last] t, tlast !
  there #target + pack$ c@ 1+ aligned tcp +! talign ;
 
: lookahead ( -- b u : parse a word, but leave it in the input stream )
  >in @ >r bl parse r> >in ! ;
 
\ The word 'h:' creates a headerless word in the target dictionary for
\ space saving reasons and to declutter the target search order. Ideally
\ it would instead add the word to a different vocabulary, so it is still
\ accessible to the programmer, but there is already very little room on the
\ target.
 
: literal [a] literal ;                      ( u -- )
: h: ( -- : create a word with no name in the target dictionary )
 ' literal  !
 $f00d tcreate there , update-fence does> @ [a] call ;
 
: t: ( "name", -- : creates a word in the target dictionary )
  lookahead thead h: ;
 
\ @warning: Only use 'fallthrough' to fallthrough to words defined with 'h:'.
: fallthrough;
  ' (literal)  !
  $f00d <> if source type cr 1 abort" unstructured! " then ;
: t;
  fallthrough; optimize if exit, else [a] return then ;
 
: fetch-xt @ dup 0= abort" (null) " ; ( a -- xt )
 
: tconstant ( "name", n -- , Run Time: -- n )
  >r
  lookahead
  thead
  there tdoConst fetch-xt [a] call r> t, >r
  tcreate r> ,
  does> @ tbody t@ [a] literal ;
 
: tvariable ( "name", n -- , Run Time: -- a )
  >r
  lookahead
  thead
  there tdoVar fetch-xt [a] call r> t, >r
  tcreate r> ,
  does> @ tbody [a] literal ;
 
: tlocation ( "name", n -- : Reserve space in target for a memory location )
  there swap t, tcreate , does> @ [a] literal ;
 
: [t] ( "name", -- a : get the address of a target word )
  token target.1 search-wordlist 0= abort" [t]? "
  cfa >body @ ;
 
\ @warning only use "[v]" on variables, not tlocations
: [v] [t] =cell + ; ( "name", -- a )
 
\ xchange takes two vocabularies defined in the target by their variable
\ names, "name1" and "name2", and updates "name1" so it contains the previously
\ defined words, and makes "name2" the vocabulary which subsequent definitions
\ are added to.
: xchange ( "name1", "name2", -- : exchange target vocabularies )
  [last] [t] t! [t] t@ tlast meta! ;
 
\ These words implement the basic control structures needed to make
\ applications in the metacompiled program, they are no immediate words
\ and they do not need to be, 't:' and 't;' do not change the interpreter
\ state, once the actual metacompilation begins everything is command mode.
: begin  there update-fence ;                ( -- a )
: until  [a] ?branch ;                       ( a -- )
: if     there update-fence 0 [a] ?branch  ; ( -- a )
: skip   there update-fence 0 [a] branch ;   ( -- a )
: then   begin 2/ over t@ or swap t! ;       ( a -- )
: else   skip swap then ;                    ( a -- a )
: while  if swap ;                           ( a -- a a )
: repeat [a] branch then update-fence ;      ( a -- )
: again  [a] branch update-fence ;           ( a -- )
: aft    drop skip begin swap ;              ( a -- a )
: constant tcreate , does> @ literal ;       ( "name", a -- )
: [char] char literal ;                      ( "name" )
: postpone [t] [a] call ;                    ( "name", -- )
: next tdoNext fetch-xt [a] call t, update-fence ; ( a -- )
: exit exit, ;                               ( -- )
: ' [t] literal ;                            ( "name", -- )
: ." tdoPrintString fetch-xt [a] call $literal ; ( "string", -- )
: $" tdoStringLit   fetch-xt [a] call $literal ; ( "string", -- )
 
\ The following section adds the words implementable in assembly to the
\ metacompiler, when one of these words is used in the metacompiled program
\ it will be implemented in assembly.
 
\ @todo implement 'd/mod', 'ud/mod', and 'ud*'?
 
: nop     ]asm  #t       alu asm[ ;
: dup     ]asm  #t       t->n   d+1   alu asm[ ;
: over    ]asm  #n       t->n   d+1   alu asm[ ;
: invert  ]asm  #~t      alu asm[ ;
: um+     ]asm  #t+n     alu asm[ ;
: +       ]asm  #t+n     n->t   d-1   alu asm[ ;
: um*     ]asm  #t*n     alu asm[    ;
: *       ]asm  #t*n     n->t   d-1   alu asm[ ;
: swap    ]asm  #n       t->n   alu asm[ ;
: nip     ]asm  #t       d-1    alu asm[ ;
: drop    ]asm  #n       d-1    alu asm[ ;
: >r      ]asm  #n       t->r   d-1   r+1   alu asm[ ;
: r>      ]asm  #r       t->n   d+1   r-1   alu asm[ ;
: r@      ]asm  #r       t->n   d+1   alu asm[ ;
: @       ]asm  #[t]     alu asm[ ;
: !       ]asm  #n->[t]  d-1    alu asm[ ;
: rshift  ]asm  #n>>t    d-1    alu asm[ ;
: lshift  ]asm  #n<
: =       ]asm  #t==n    d-1    alu asm[ ;
: u<      ]asm  #nu
: <       ]asm  #n
: and     ]asm  #t&n     d-1    alu asm[ ;
: xor     ]asm  #t^n     d-1    alu asm[ ;
: or      ]asm  #t|n     d-1    alu asm[ ;
: sp@     ]asm  #sp@     t->n   d+1   alu asm[ ;
: sp!     ]asm  #sp!     alu asm[ ;
: 1-      ]asm  #t-1     alu asm[ ;
: rp@     ]asm  #rp@     t->n   d+1   alu asm[ ;
: rp!     ]asm  #rp!     d-1    alu asm[ ;
: 0=      ]asm  #t==0    alu asm[ ;
: (bye)   ]asm  #bye     alu asm[ ;
: rx?     ]asm  #rx      t->n   d+1   alu asm[ ;
: tx!     ]asm  #tx      n->t   d-1   alu asm[ ;
: (save)  ]asm  #save    d-1    alu asm[ ;
: u/mod   ]asm  #u/mod   t->n   alu asm[ ;
\ : u/    ]asm  #u/mod   d-1    alu asm[ ;
\ : umod  ]asm  #u/mod   n->t   d-1   alu asm[ ;
: /mod    ]asm  #/mod    t->n   alu asm[ ;
: /       ]asm  #/mod    d-1    alu asm[ ;
: mod     ]asm  #/mod    n->t   d-1   alu asm[ ;
: rdrop   ]asm  #t       r-1    alu asm[ ;
\ Some words can be implemented in a single instruction which have no
\ analogue within Forth.
: dup-@   ]asm  #[t]     t->n   d+1 alu asm[ ;
: dup>r   ]asm  #t       t->r   r+1 alu asm[ ;
: 2dup=   ]asm  #t==n    t->n   d+1 alu asm[ ;
: 2dupxor ]asm #t^n     t->n   d+1 alu asm[ ;
: rxchg   ]asm  #r       t->r       alu asm[ ;
 
\ 'for' needs the new definition of '>r' to work correctly.
: for >r begin ;
 
: meta: : ;
\ : :noname h: ;
: : t: ;
meta: ; t; ;
hide meta:
hide t:
hide t;
 
]asm #~t              ALU asm[ constant =invert ( invert instruction )
]asm #t  r->pc    r-1 ALU asm[ constant =exit   ( return/exit instruction )
]asm #n  t->r d-1 r+1 ALU asm[ constant =>r     ( to r. stk. instruction )
$20   constant =bl         ( blank, or space )
$d    constant =cr         ( carriage return )
$a    constant =lf         ( line feed )
$8    constant =bs         ( back space )
$1b   constant =escape     ( escape character )
 
$10   constant dump-width  ( number of columns for 'dump' )
$50   constant tib-length  ( size of terminal input buffer )
$1f   constant word-length ( maximum length of a word )
 
$40   constant c/l         ( characters per line in a block )
$10   constant l/b         ( lines in a block )
$4400 constant sp0         ( start of variable stack )
$7fff constant rp0         ( start of return stack )
$2bad constant magic       ( magic number for compiler security )
$f    constant #highest    ( highest bit in cell )
 
( Volatile variables )
$4000 constant       ( used in skip/test )
$4002 constant last-def    ( last, possibly unlinked, word definition )
$4006 constant id          ( used for source id )
$4008 constant seed        ( seed used for the PRNG )
$400A constant handler     ( current handler for throw/catch )
$400C constant block-dirty ( -1 if loaded block buffer is modified )
$4010 constant        ( -- c : new character, blocking input )
$4012 constant       ( c -- : emit character )
$4014 constant     ( "accept" vector )
\ $4016 constant      ( "tap" vector, for terminal handling )
\ $4018 constant     ( c -- : emit character )
\ $4020 constant       ( -- : display prompt )
\ $4022 constant _literal  ( u -- u | : handles literals )
$4110 constant context     ( holds current context for search order )
$4122 constant #tib        ( Current count of terminal input buffer )
$4124 constant tib-buf     ( ... and address )
$4126 constant tib-start   ( backup tib-buf value )
\ $4280 == pad-area
 
$c    constant header-length  ( location of length in header )
$e    constant header-crc     ( location of CRC in header )
$14   constant header-options ( location of options bits in header )
 
target.1 +order         ( Add target word dictionary to search order )
meta -order meta +order ( Reorder so 'meta' has a higher priority )
forth-wordlist   -order ( Remove normal Forth words to prevent accidents )
 
\ # The Target Forth
\ With the assembler and meta compiler complete, we can now make our target
\ application, a Forth interpreter which will be able to read in this file
\ and create new, possibly modified, images for the Forth virtual machine
\ to run.
 
\ ## The Image Header
\ The following 't,' sequence reserves space and partially populates the
\ image header with file format information, based upon the PNG specification.
\ See  and
\  for more information about
\ how to design binary formats.
\
\ The header contains enough information to identify the format, the
\ version of the format, and to detect corruption of data, as well as
\ having a few other nice properties - some having to do with how other
\ systems and programs may deal with the binary (such as have a string literal
\ 'FTH' to help identify the binary format, and the first byte being outside
\ the ASCII range of characters so it is obvious that the file is meant to
\ be treated as a binary and not as text).
\
 
 
 
$4689    t, \  $4: 0x89 'F'
$4854    t, \  $6: 'T'  'H'
$0a0d    t, \  $8: '\r' '\n'
$0a1a    t, \  $A: ^Z   '\n'
 
 
$0001    t, \ $10: Endianess check
#version t, \ $12: Version information
$0001    t, \ $14: Header options
 
\ ## First Word Definitions
\
\ After the header two short words are defined, visible only to the meta
\ compiler and used by its internal machinery. The words are needed by
\ 'tvariable' and 'tconstant', and these constructs cannot be used without
\ them. This is an example of the metacompiler and the metacompiled program
\ being intermingled, which should be kept to a minimum.
 
h: doVar   r> ;    ( -- a : push return address and exit to caller )
h: doConst r> @ ;  ( -- u : push value at return address and exit to caller )
 
\ Here the address of 'doVar' and 'doConst' in the target is stored in
\ variables accessible by the metacompiler, so 'tconstant' and 'tvariable' can
\ compile references to them in the target.
 
[t] doVar tdoVar meta!
[t] doConst tdoConst meta!
 
\ Next some space is reserved for variables which will have no name in the
\ target and are not on the target Forths search order. We do this with
\ 'tlocation'. These variables are needed for the internal working of the
\ interpreter but the application programmer using the target Forth can make
\ do without them, so they do not have names within the target.
\
\ A short description of the variables and their uses:
\
\ 'cp' is the dictionary pointer, which usually is only incremented in order
\ to reserve space in this dictionary. Words like "," and ":" advance this
\ variable.
\
\ 'root-voc', 'editor-voc', 'assembler-voc', and '_forth-wordlist' are
\ variables which point to word lists, they can be used with 'set-order'
\ and pointers to them may be returned by 'get-order'. By default the only
\ vocabularies loaded are the root vocabulary (which contains only a few
\ vocabulary manipulation words) and the forth vocabulary are loaded (which
\ contains most of the words in a standard Forth).
\
\ 'current' contains a pointer to the vocabulary which new words will be
\ added to when the target is up and running, this will be the forth
\ vocabulary, or '_forth-wordlist'.
\
\ None of these variables are set to any meaningful values here and will be
\ updated during the metacompilation process.
\
 
 
 
 
\ 0 tlocation assembler-voc   ( assembler vocabulary )
 
 
 
\ ## Target Assembly Words
 
\ The first words added to the target Forths dictionary are all based on
\ assembly instructions. The definitions may seem like nonsense, how does the
\ definition of '+' work? It appears that the definition calls itself, which
\ obviously would not work. The answer is in the order new words are added
\ into the dictionary. In Forth, a word definition is not placed in the
\ search order until the definition of that word is complete, this allows
\ the previous definition of a word to be use within that definition, and
\ requires a separate word ("recurse") to implement recursion.
\
\ However, the words ':' and ';' are not the normal Forth define and end
\ definitions words, they are the metacompilers and they behave differently,
\ ':' is implemented with 't:' and ';' with 't;'.
\
\ 't:' uses 'create' to make a new variable in the metacompilers
\ dictionary that points to a word definition in the target, it also creates
\ the words header in the target ('h:' is the same, but without a header
\ being made in the target). The word is compilable into the target as soon
\ as it is defined, yet the definition of '+' is not recursive because the
\ metacompilers search order, "meta", is higher that the search order for
\ the words containing the metacompiled target addresses, "target.1", so the
\ assembly for '+' gets compiled into the definition of '+'.
\
\ Manipulation of the word search order is key in understanding how the
\ metacompiler works.
\
\ The following words will be part of the main search order, in
\ 'forth-wordlist' and in the assembly search order.
\
 
\ : nop      nop      ; ( -- : do nothing )
: dup      dup      ; ( n -- n n : duplicate value on top of stack )
: over     over     ; ( n1 n2 -- n1 n2 n1 : duplicate second value on stack )
: invert   invert   ; ( u -- u : bitwise invert of value on top of stack )
: um+      um+      ; ( u u -- u carry : addition with carry )
: +        +        ; ( u u -- u : addition without carry )
: um*      um*      ; ( u u -- ud : multiplication  )
: *        *        ; ( u u -- u : multiplication )
: swap     swap     ; ( n1 n2 -- n2 n1 : swap two values on stack )
: nip      nip      ; ( n1 n2 -- n2 : remove second item on stack )
: drop     drop     ; ( n -- : remove item on stack )
: @        @        ; ( a -- u : load value at address )
: !        !        ; ( u a -- : store 'u' at address 'a' )
: rshift   rshift   ; ( u1 u2 -- u : shift u2 by u1 places to the right )
: lshift   lshift   ; ( u1 u2 -- u : shift u2 by u1 places to the left )
: =        =        ; ( u1 u2 -- t : does u2 equal u1? )
: u<       u<       ; ( u1 u2 -- t : is u2 less than u1 )
: <        <        ; ( u1 u2 -- t : is u2 less than u1, signed version )
: and      and      ; ( u u -- u : bitwise and )
: xor      xor      ; ( u u -- u : bitwise exclusive or )
: or       or       ; ( u u -- u : bitwise or )
\ : sp@    sp@      ; ( ??? -- u : get stack depth )
\ : sp!    sp!      ; ( u -- ??? : set stack depth )
: 1-       1-       ; ( u -- u : decrement top of stack )
: 0=       0=       ; ( u -- t : if top of stack equal to zero )
: (bye)    (bye)    ; ( u -- !!! : exit VM with 'u' as return value )
: rx?      rx?      ; ( -- c | -1 : fetch a single character, or EOF )
: tx!      tx!      ; ( c -- : transmit single character )
: (save)   (save)   ; ( u1 u2 -- u : save memory from u1 to u2 inclusive )
: u/mod    u/mod    ; ( u1 u2 -- rem div : unsigned divide/modulo )
: /mod     /mod     ; ( u1 u2 -- rem div : signed divide/modulo )
: /        /        ; ( u1 u2 -- u : u1 divided by u2 )
: mod      mod      ; ( u1 u2 -- u : remainder of u1 divided by u2 )
 
\ ### Forth Implementation of Arithmetic Functions
\
\ As an aside, the basic arithmetic functions of Forth can be implemented
\ in terms of simple addition, some tests and bit manipulation, if they
\ are not available for your system. Division, the remainder operation and
\ multiplication are provided by the virtual machine in this case, but it
\ is interesting to see how these words are put together. The first task it
\ to implement an add with carry, or 'um+'. Once this is available, 'um/mod'
\ and 'um*' are coded.
\
\       : s>d dup 0< ;             ( n -- d : single to double )
\
\       : um+ ( w w -- w carry )
\         over over + >r
\         r@ 0 < invert >r
\         over over and
\         0 < r> or >r
\         or 0 < r> and invert 1 +
\         r> swap ;
\
\       $f constant #highest
\       : um/mod ( ud u -- r q )
\         ?dup 0= if $a -throw exit then
\         2dup u<
\         if negate #highest
\           for >r dup um+ >r >r dup um+ r> + dup
\             r> r@ swap >r um+ r> or
\             if >r drop 1+ r> else drop then r>
\           next
\           drop swap exit
\         then drop 2drop [-1] dup ;
\
\       : m/mod ( d n -- r q ) \ floored division
\         dup 0< dup>r
\         if
\           negate >r dnegate r>
\         then
\         >r dup 0< if r@ + then r> um/mod r>
\         if swap negate swap exit then ;
\
\       : um* ( u u -- ud )
\         0 swap ( u1 0 u2 ) #highest
\         for dup um+ >r >r dup um+ r> + r>
\           if >r over um+ r> + then
\         next rot drop ;
\
\ The other arithmetic operations follow from the previous definitions almost
\ trivially:
\
\       : /mod  over 0< swap m/mod ; ( n n -- r q )
\       : mod  /mod drop ;           ( n n -- r )
\       : /    /mod nip ;            ( n n -- q )
\       : *    um* drop ;            ( n n -- n )
\       : m* 2dup xor 0< >r abs swap abs um* r> if dnegate then ; ( n n -- d )
\       : */mod  >r m* r> m/mod ;    ( n n n -- r q )
\       : */  */mod nip ;            ( n n n -- q )
\
 
\ ### Inline Words
\ These words can also be implemented in a single instruction, yet their
\ definition is different for multiple reasons. These words should only be
\ use within a word definition begin defined within the running target Forth,
\ so they have a bit set in their header indicating as such.
\
\ Another difference is how these words are compiled into a word definition
\ in the target, which is due to the fact they manipulate the return stack.
\ These words are 'inlined', which means the instruction they contain is
\ written directly into a definition being defined in the running target
\ Forth instead of a call to a word that contains the assembly instruction,
\ calls obviously change the return stack, so these words would either have
\ to take that into account or the assembly instruction could be inlined,
\ the later option has been taken.
\
\ As these words are never actually called, as they are only of use in
\ compile mode, and then they are inlined instead of being called, we can
\ leave off ';' which would write an exit instruction on the end of the
\ definition.
\
 
there constant inline-start
\ : rp@ rp@   fallthrough; compile-only ( -- u )
\ : rp! rp!   fallthrough; compile-only ( u --, R: --- ??? )
: exit  exit  fallthrough; compile-only ( -- )
: >r    >r    fallthrough; compile-only ( u --, R: -- u )
: r>    r>    fallthrough; compile-only ( -- u, R: u -- )
: r@    r@    fallthrough; compile-only ( -- u )
: rdrop rdrop fallthrough; compile-only ( --, R: u -- )
there constant inline-end
 
\ Finally we can set the 'assembler-voc' to variable, we will add to the
\ assembly vocabulary later, but all of the words defined so far belong in
\ the assembly vocabulary. Unfortunately, the assembler when run in the
\ target Forth interpreter will compile calls to the instructions like '+'
\ or 'xor', only a few words will be inlined. There are potential solutions
\ to this problem, but they are not worth further complicating the Forth just
\ yet.
 
\ [last] [t] assembler-voc t!
 
$2       tconstant cell  ( size of a cell in bytes )
$0       tvariable >in   ( Hold character pointer when parsing input )
$0       tvariable state ( compiler state variable )
$0       tvariable hld   ( Pointer into hold area for numeric output )
$10      tvariable base  ( Current output radix )
$0       tvariable span  ( Hold character count received by expect   )
$8       tconstant #vocs ( number of vocabularies in allowed )
$400     tconstant b/buf ( size of a block )
 
#version constant  ver   ( eForth version )
pad-area tconstant pad   ( pad variable - offset into temporary storage )
 
 
 
 
\ The following execution vectors would/will be added if there is enough
\ space, it is very useful to have hooks into the system to change how
\ the interpreter behaviour works. Being able to change how the Forth
\ interpreter handles number parsing allows the processing of double or
\ floating point numbers in a system that could otherwise not handle them.
 
\ 0        tvariable       ( execution vector for interpreter error )
\ 0        tvariable   ( execution vector for interpreter )
\ 0        tvariable       ( execution vector for abort handler )
\ 0        tvariable       ( execution vector for at-xy )
\ 0        tvariable        ( execution vector for page )
\ 0        tvariable      ( execution vector for >number )
\ 0        tvariable hidden       ( vocabulary for hidden words )
 
 
\ ### Basic Word Set
\
\ The following section of words is purely a space saving measure, or
\ they allow for other optimizations which also save space. Examples
\ of this include "[-1]"; any number about $7fff requires two instructions
\ to encode, numbers below only one, -1 is a commonly used number so this
\ allows us to save on space.
\
\ This does not explain the creation of a word to push the number zero
\ though, this only takes up one instruction.  This is instead explained
\ by the interaction of the peephole optimizer with function calls, calls
\ to function can be turned into a branch if that instruction were to be
\ followed by an exit instruction because it is at the end of a word
\ definition. This cannot be said of literals. This allows us to save
\ space under special circumstances.
\
\ The following example illustrates this:
\
\  | FORTH CODE                   | PSEUDO ASSEMBLER         |
\  | ---------------------------- | ------------------------ |
\  | : push-zero 0 literal ;      | LITERAL(0) EXIT          |
\  | : example-1 drop 0 literal ; | DROP LITERAL(0) EXIT     |
\  | : example-2 drop 0 literal ; | DROP BRANCH(push-zero)   |
\
\ Where "example-1" being unoptimized requires three instructions, whereas
\ "example-2" requires only two, with the two instruction overhead of
\ "push-zero".
\
\ Optimizations like this explain some of the structure of the Forth
\ code, it is better to exit early and heavily factorize code if space is at
\ a premium, which it is due to the way the virtual machine works (both it
\ being 16-bit only, and only allowing the first 16KiB to be used for program
\ storage). Factoring code like this is similar to performing LZW compression,
\ or similar dictionary related compression schemes.
\ 
\ 
\
\ Whilst factoring words into smaller, cleaner, definitions is highly
\ encouraged for Forth code (it is often an art coming up with the right
\ word name and associated concept it encapsulates), making words like
\ "2drop-0" is not. It hurts readability as there is no reason or idea backing
\ a word like "2drop-0", even if it is fairly clear what it does from its
\ name.
\
h: [-1] -1 ;                 ( -- -1 : space saving measure, push -1 )
h: 0x8000 $8000 ;            ( -- $8000 : space saving measure, push $8000 )
h: 2drop-0 drop fallthrough; ( n n -- 0 )
h: drop-0 drop fallthrough;  ( n -- 0 )
h: 0x0000 $0000 ;            ( -- $0000 : space/optimization, push $0000 )
h: state@ state @ ;          ( -- u )
h: first-bit 1 and ;         ( u -- u )
h: in! >in ! ;               ( u -- )
h: in@ >in @ ;               ( -- u )
 
\ Now the implementation of the Forth interpreter without the apologies
\ for the words in the prior section. This group of words implement some
\ of the basic words expected in Forth; simple stack manipulation, tests,
\ and other one, or two line definitions that do not really require an
\ explanation of how they work - only why they are useful. Some of the words
\ are described by their stack comment entirely, like "2drop", other like
\ "cell+" require a reason for such a simple word (they embody a concept or
\ they help hide implementation details).
 
: 2drop drop drop ;         ( n n -- )
: 1+ 1 + ;                  ( n -- n : increment a value  )
: negate invert 1+ ;        ( n -- n : negate a number )
: - negate + ;              ( n1 n2 -- n : subtract n1 from n2 )
h: over- over - ;           ( u u -- u u )
h: over+ over + ;           ( u1 u2 -- u1 u1+2 )
: aligned dup first-bit + ; ( b -- a )
: bye 0 (bye) ;             ( -- : leave the interpreter )
h: cell- cell - ;           ( a -- a : adjust address to previous cell )
: cell+ cell + ;            ( a -- a : move address forward to next cell )
: cells 1 lshift ;          ( n -- n : convert cells count to address count )
: chars 1 rshift ;          ( n -- n : convert bytes to number of cells )
: ?dup dup if dup exit then ; ( n -- 0 | n n : duplicate non zero value )
: >  swap < ;               ( n1 n2 -- t : signed greater than, n1 > n2 )
: u> swap u< ;              ( u1 u2 -- t : unsigned greater than, u1 > u2 )
h: u>= u< invert ;          ( u1 u2 -- t : unsigned greater/equal )
: <> = invert ;             ( n n -- t : not equal )
: 0<> 0= invert ;           ( n n -- t : not equal  to zero )
: 0> 0 > ;                  ( n -- t : greater than zero? )
: 0< 0 < ;                  ( n -- t : less than zero? )
: 2dup over over ;          ( n1 n2 -- n1 n2 n1 n2 )
: tuck swap over ;          ( n1 n2 -- n2 n1 n2 )
: +! tuck @ +  fallthrough; ( n a -- : increment value at 'a' by 'n' )
h: swap! swap ! ;           ( a u -- )
: 1+!  1 swap +! ;          ( a -- : increment value at address by 1 )
: 1-! [-1] swap +! ;        ( a -- : decrement value at address by 1 )
: 2! ( d a -- ) tuck ! cell+ ! ;      ( n n a -- )
: 2@ ( a -- d ) dup cell+ @ swap @ ;  ( a -- n n )
: get-current current @ ;             ( -- wid )
: set-current current ! ;             ( wid -- )
: bl =bl ;                            ( -- c )
: within over- >r - r> u< ;           ( u lo hi -- t )
: abs dup 0< if negate exit then ;    ( n -- u )
: tib #tib cell+ @ ;                  ( -- a )
: source #tib 2@ ;                    ( -- a u )
: source-id id @ ;                    ( -- 0 | -1 )
: d0= 0= swap 0= and ;                ( d -- t )
: dnegate invert >r invert 1 um+ r> + ; ( d -- d )
\ : even first-bit 0= ;               ( u -- t )
\ : odd even 0= ;                     ( u -- t )
 
 
\ 'execute' requires an understanding of the return stack, much like
\ 'doConst' and 'doVar', when given an execution token of a word, a pointer
\ to its Code Field Address (or CFA), 'execute' will call that word. This
\ allows us to call arbitrary function and change, or vector, execution at
\ run time. All 'execute' needs to do is push the address onto the return
\ stack and when 'execute' exits it will jump to the desired word, the callers
\ address is still on the return stack, so when the called word exit it will
\ jump back to 'executes' caller.
\
\ '@execute' is similar but it only executes the token if it is non-zero.
\
 
: execute >r ;                   ( cfa -- : execute a function )
h: @execute @ ?dup if >r then ;  ( cfa -- )
\
\ As the virtual machine is only addressable by cells, and not by characters,
\ the words 'c@' and 'c!' cannot be defined as simple assembly primitives,
\ they must be defined in terms of '@' and '!'. It is not difficult to do,
\ but does mean these two primitives are slower than might be first thought.
\
 
: c@ dup-@ swap first-bit ( b -- c : load character from address  )
   if
      8 rshift exit
   then
   $ff and ;
: c!                      ( c b -- : store character at address )
  swap $ff and dup 8 lshift or swap
  swap over dup @ swap first-bit 0= $ff xor
  >r over xor r> and xor swap ! ;
 
\ 'command?' will be used later for words that are state away. State awareness
\ and whether the interpreter is in command mode, or compile mode, as well as
\ immediate words, will require a lot of explanation for the beginner until
\ they are understood. This is best done elsewhere. 'command?' is used to
\ determine if the interpreter is in command mode or not, it returns true
\ if it is.
\
 
h: command? state@ 0= ;               ( -- t )
 
\ 'here', 'align', 'cp!' and 'allow' all manipulate the dictionary pointer,
\ which is a common operation. 'align' aligns the pointer up to the next
\ cell boundary, and 'cp!' sets the dictionary pointer to a value whilst
\ enforcing that the value written is aligned.
\
\ 'here' retrieves the current dictionary pointer, which is needed for
\ compiling control structures into words, so is used by words like 'if',
\ and has other uses as well.
\
 
: here cp @ ;                         ( -- a )
: align here fallthrough;             ( -- )
h: cp! aligned cp ! ;                 ( n -- )
 
\ 'allot' is used in Forth to allocate memory after using 'create' to make
\ a new word. It reserves space in the dictionary, space can be deallocated
\ by giving it a negative number, however this may trash whatever data is
\ written there and should not generally be done.
\
\ Typical usage:
\
\   create x $20 allot ( Create an array of 32 values )
\   $cafe  x $10 !     ( Store '$cafe' at element 16 in array )
\
 
: allot cp +! ;                        ( n -- )
 
\ 'rot' and '-rot' manipulate three items on the stack, rotating them, if you
\ find yourself using them too much it is best to refactor the code as code
\ that uses them tends to be very confusing.
 
: rot >r swap r> swap ;               ( n1 n2 n3 -- n2 n3 n1 )
: -rot swap >r swap r> ;              ( n1 n2 n3 -- n3 n1 n2 )
 
\ '2>r' and '2r>' are like 'rot' and '-rot', useful but they should not
\ be overused. The words move two values to and from the return stack. Care
\ should exercised when using them as the return stack can easily be corrupted,
\ leading to unpredictable behavior, much like all the return stack words.
\ The optimizer might also change a call to one of these words into a jump,
\ which should be avoided as it could cause problems in edge cases, so do not
\ use this word directly before an 'exit' or ';'.
\
 
h: 2>r rxchg swap >r >r ;              ( u1 u2 --, R: -- u1 u2 )
h: 2r> r> r> swap rxchg nop ;          ( -- u1 u2, R: u1 u2 -- )
 
\ 'doNext' needs to be defined before we can use 'for...next' loops, the
\ metacompiler compiles a reference to this word when 'next' is encountered.
\
\ It is worth explaining how this word works, it is a complex word that
\ requires an understanding of how the return stack words, as well as how
\ both 'for' and 'next work.
\
\ The 'for...next' loop accepts a value, 'u' and runs for 'u+1' times.
\ 'for' puts the loop counter onto the return stack, meaning the
\ loop counter value is available to us as the first stack element, but
\ also meaning if we want to exit from within a 'for...next' loop we must
\ pop off the value from the return stack first.
\
\ The 'next' word compiles a 'doNext' into the dictionary, and then the
\ address to jump back to, just after the 'for' has compiled a '>r' into the
\ dictionary.
\
\ 'doNext' has two possible actions, it either takes the branch back to
\ the place after 'for' if the loop counter non zero, being careful to
\ decrement the loop counter and restoring it the correct place, or
\ it jumps over the place where the back jump address is stored in the
\ case when the loop counter is zero, removing the loop counter from the
\ return stack.
\
\ This is all possible, because when 'doNext' is called (and it must be
\ called, not jumped to), the return address points to the cell after
\ 'doNext' is compiled into. By manipulating the return stack correctly it
\ can change the program flow to either jump over the next cell, or jump
\ to the address contained in the next cell. Understanding the simpler
\ 'doConst' and 'doVar' helps in understanding this word.
\
 
h: doNext 2r> ?dup if 1- >r @ >r exit then cell+ >r ;
[t] doNext tdoNext meta!
 
\ 'min' and 'max' are standard operations in many languages, they operate
\ on signed values. Note how they are factored to use the 'mux' word, with
\ 'min' falling through into it, and 'max' calling 'mux', all to save on space.
\
 
: min 2dup < fallthrough;             ( n n -- n )
h: mux if drop exit then nip ;        ( n1 n2 b -- n : multiplex operation )
: max 2dup > mux ;                    ( n n -- n )
 
 
\ 'key' retrieves a single character of input, it is a vectored word so the
\ method used to get data can be changed.
\
\ It calls 'bye' if the End of File character is returned (-1, which is
\ outside the normal byte range).
\
 
: key  @execute dup [-1] = if bye 0x0000 exit then ; ( -- c )
 
\ '/string', '+string' and 'count' are for manipulating strings, 'count'
\ words best on counted strings which have a length prefix, but can be used
\ to advance through an array of byte data, whereas '/string' is used with
\ a address and length pair that is already on the stack. '/string' will not
\ advance the pair beyond the end of the string.
\
 
: /string over min rot over+ -rot - ;  ( b u1 u2 -- b u : advance string u2 )
h: +string 1 /string ;                 ( b u -- b u : )
: count dup 1+ swap c@ ;               ( b -- b u )
h: string@ over c@ ;                   ( b u -- b u c )
 
\ 'crc' computes the 16-bit CCITT CRC over a segment of memory, and 'ccitt'
\ is the word that does the polynomial checking. It can be also be used as a
\ crude Pseudo Random Number Generator. CRC routines are useful for detecting
\ memory corruption in the Forth image.
\
 
h: ccitt ( crc c -- crc : crc polynomial $1021 AKA "x16 + x12 + x5 + 1" )
  over $8 rshift xor   ( crc x )
  dup  $4 rshift xor   ( crc x )
  dup  $5 lshift xor   ( crc x )
  dup  $c lshift xor   ( crc x )
  swap $8 lshift xor ; ( crc )
 
: crc ( b u -- u : calculate ccitt-ffff CRC )
  $ffff >r
  begin
    dup
  while
   string@ r> swap ccitt >r 1 /string
  repeat 2drop r> ;
 
 
 
\ : random ( -- u : pseudo random number )
\  seed @ 0= seed toggle seed @ 0 ccitt dup seed ! ;
 
\ 'address' and '@address' are for use with the previous word point in the word
\ header,  the top two bits for other purposes (a 'compile-only' and an
\ 'immediate' word bit). This makes traversing the dictionary a little more
\ tricker than normal, and affects functions like 'words' and 'search-wordlist'
\ Code can only exist in the first 16KiB of space anyway, so the top two bits
\ cannot be used for anything else. It is debatable as to what the best way
\ of marking words as immediate is, to use unused bits in a word header, or to
\ place 'immediate' words in a special vocabulary which a minority of Forths
\ do. Most Forths use the 'unused-bits-in-word-header' approach.
\
 
h: @address @ fallthrough;             ( a -- a )
h: address $3fff and ;                 ( a -- a : mask off address bits )
 
\ 'last' gets a pointer to the most recently defined word, which is used to
\ implement words like 'recurse', as well as in words which must traverse the
\ current word list.
 
h: last get-current @address ;         ( -- pwd )
 
\ A few character emitting words will now be defined, it should be obvious
\ what these words do, 'emit' is the word that forms the basis of all these
\ words. By default it is set to the primitive virtual machine instruction
\ 'tx!'. In eForth another character emitting primitive was defined alongside
\ 'emit', which was 'echo', which allowed for more control in how the
\ interpreter interacts with the programmer and other programs. It is not
\ necessary in a hosted Forth to have such a mechanism, but it can be added
\ back in as needed, we will see commented out relics of this features later,
\ when we see '^h' and 'ktap'.
\
 
\ h: echo  @execute ;            ( c -- )
: emit  @execute ;               ( c -- : write out a char )
: cr =cr emit =lf emit ;               ( -- : emit a newline )
h: colon [char] : emit ;               ( -- )
: space =bl emit ;                     ( -- : emit a space )
h: spaces =bl fallthrough;             ( +n -- )
h: nchars                              ( +n c -- : emit c n times )
  swap 0 max for aft dup emit then next drop ;
 
\ 'depth' and 'pick' require knowledge of how this Forth implements its
\ stacks. 'sp0' contains the location of the stack pointer when there is
\ nothing on the stack, and 'sp@' contains the current position. Using this
\ it is possible to work out how many items, or how deep it is. 'pick' is
\ used to pick an item at an arbitrary depth from the return stack. This
\ version of 'pick' does this by indexing into the correct position and using
\ a memory load operation to do this.
\
\ In some systems Forth is implemented on this is not possible to do, for
\ example some Forths running on stack CPUs specifically designed to run Forth
\ have stacks made in hardware which are not memory mapped. This is not just
\ a hypothetical, the H2 Forth CPU (based on the J1 CPU) available at
\  has stacks whose only operations are
\ to increment and decrement them by a small number, and to get the current
\ stack depth. On a platform like this, 'pick' can still be implemented,
\ but it is more complex and can be done like this:
\
\   : pick ?dup if swap >r 1- pick r> swap exit then dup ;
\
 
: depth sp@ sp0 - chars ;             ( -- u : get current depth )
: pick cells sp@ swap - @ ;           ( vn...v0 u -- vn...v0 vu )
 
\ '>char' takes a character and converts it to an underscore if it is not
\ printable, which is useful for printing out arbitrary sections of memory
\ which may contain spaces, tabs, or non-printable. 'list' and 'dump' use
\ this word. 'typist' can either use '>char' to print out a memory range
\ or it can print out the value regardless if it is printable.
\
 
h: >char $7f and dup $7f =bl within if drop [char] _ then ; ( c -- c )
: type 0 fallthrough;                  ( b u -- )
h: typist                              ( b u f -- : print a string )
  >r begin dup while
    swap count r@
    if
      >char
    then
    emit
    swap 1-
  repeat
  rdrop 2drop ;
h: print count type ;                    ( b -- )
h: $type [-1] typist ;                   ( b u --  )
 
\ 'cmove' and 'fill' are generic memory related functions for moving blocks
\ of memory around and setting blocks of memory to a specific value
\ respectively.
 
: cmove for aft >r dup c@ r@ c! 1+ r> 1+ then next 2drop ; ( b b u -- )
: fill swap for swap aft 2dup c! 1+ then next 2drop ; ( b u c -- )
 
\ 'ndrop' removes a variable number of items off the variable stack, which
\ is sometimes needed for cleaning things up before exiting a word.
\
 
h: ndrop for aft drop then next ; ( 0u....nu n -- : drop n cells )
 
\ ### Exception Handling
\
\ 'catch' and 'throw' are complex and very useful words, these words are
\ minor modifications to the ones provided in the ANS Forth standard,
\ See  and
\ http://forth.sourceforge.net/standard/dpans/dpans9.htm
\
\ The standard describes the stack effects of 'catch' and 'throw' as so:
\
\   catch ( i*x xt -- j*x 0 | i*x n )
\   throw ( k*x n -- k*x | i*x n )
\
\ Which is apparently meant to mean something, to someone. Either way, these
\ words are how Forth implements exception handling, as many modern languages
\ do. Their use is quite simple.
\
\ 'catch' accepts an execution token, which it executes, if throw is somehow
\ invoked when the execution token is run, then 'catch' catches the exception
\ and returns the exception number thrown. If no exception was thrown then
\ 'catch' returns zero.
\
\ 'throw' is used to throw exceptions, it can be used anyway to indicate
\ something has gone wrong, or to affect the control throw of a program in
\ a portable way (instead of messing around with the return stack using '>r'
\ and 'r>', which is non-portable), although it is ill advised to use
\ exceptions for control flow purposes. 'throw' only throws an exception if
\ the value provided to it was non-zero, otherwise execution continues as
\ normal.
\
\ Example usage:
\
\ : word-the-might-fail 2 2 + 5 = if -9001 throw then ;
\ : foo
\    ' word-the-might-fail catch
\    ?dup if abort" Something has gone terribly wrong..." then
\    ." Everything went peachy" cr ;
\
 
: catch ( i*x xt -- j*x 0 | i*x n )
  sp@ >r
  handler @ >r
  rp@ handler !
  execute
  r> handler !
  r> drop-0 ;
 
: throw ( k*x n -- k*x | i*x n )
  ?dup if
    handler @ rp!
    r> handler !
    rxchg ( 'rxchg' is equivalent to 'r> swap >r' )
    sp! drop r>
  then ;
 
\ Negative numbers take up two cells in a word definition when compiled into
\ one, whilst positive words only take up one cell, as a space saving
\ measure we define '-throw'. Which negates a number before calling 'throw'.
\
\ We then do something curious, we set the second cell in the target virtual
\ machine image to a branch to '-throw'. This is because it is the
\ the virtual machine sets the program counter to the second cell (at address
\ $2, or 1 cell in) whenever an exception is raised when executing an
\ instruction, such as a division by zero. By setting the cell to the
\ execution token divided by two we are setting that cell to an unconditional
\ branch to '-throw'. The virtual machine also puts a number indicating what
\ the exception was on the top of the stack so it is possible to determine
\ what went wrong.
\
 
h: -throw negate throw ;  ( u -- : negate and throw )
[t] -throw 2/ 1 tcells t!
 
\ '?ndepth' throws an exception if a certain number of items on the stack
\ do not exist. It is possible to use this primitive to implement some basic
\ checks to make sure that words are passed the correct number of arguments.
\
\ By using '?ndepth' strategically it is possible to catch errors quite
\ quickly with minimal overhead in speed and size by selecting only a few
\ words to put depth checking in.
 
h: 1depth 1 fallthrough; ( ??? -- : check depth is at least one )
h: ?ndepth depth 1- u> if 4 -throw exit then ; ( ??? n -- check depth )
h: 2depth 2 ?ndepth ;    ( ??? -- :  check depth is at least two )
 
\ @todo implement a more efficient version of 'um/mod' using built in division
: um/mod ( ud u -- r q )
  ?dup 0= if $a -throw exit then
  2dup u<
  if negate #highest
    for >r dup um+ >r >r dup um+ r> + dup
      r> r@ swap >r um+ r> or
      if >r drop 1+ r> else drop then r>
    next
    drop swap exit
  then drop 2drop [-1] dup ;
 
\ ## Numeric Output
\ With the basic word set in place and exception handling, as well as some
\ variables being defined, it is possible to define the numeric output wordset,
\ this word set will allow numbers to be printed or strings to the numeric
\ representation of a number defined.
\
\ Numeric output in Forth, as well as input, is controlled by the 'base'
\ variable, it is possible to enter numbers and print them out in binary,
\ octal, decimal, hexadecimal or any base from base 2 to base 36 inclusive.
\ This section only deals with numeric output. The numeric output string
\ is formed within a temporary buffer which can either be printed out or
\ copied to another location as needed, the method for doing this is known
\ as Pictured Numeric Output. The words '<#', '#', '#>' and 'hold' form the
\ kernel from which the other numeric output words are formed.
\
\ As a note, Base 36 can be used as a fairly compact textual encoding of binary
\ data if needed, like Base-64 encoding but without the need for a special
\ encoding and decoding scheme (See: ).
\
\ First, a few utility words are formed, 'decimal' and 'hex' set the base
\ to known values. These are needed so the programmer can get the interpret
\ back to a known state when they have set the radix to a value (remember,
\ '10' is valid and different value in every base!), as well as a quick
\ shorthand.
\
\ The word 'radix' is then defined, which is used to check that the 'base'
\ variable is set to a meaningful value before it is used, between 2 and 36,
\ inclusive as previously mentioned. Radixes or bases higher than 10 uses the
\ alphabet after 0-9 to represent higher numbers, so 'a' corresponds to '10',
\ there are only 36 alphanumeric characters (ignoring character case) meaning
\ higher numbers cannot be represented. If the radix is outside of this range,
\ then base is set back to its default, hexadecimal, and an exception is
\ thrown.
\
 
: decimal  $a base ! ;                      ( -- )
: hex     $10 base ! ;                      ( -- )
h: radix base @ dup 2 - $22 u> if hex $28 -throw exit then ; ( -- u )
 
\ 'digit' converts a number to its character representation, but it only
\ deals with numbers less than 36, it does no checking for the output base,
\ but is a straight forward conversion utility. It assumes that the ASCII
\ character set is being used (See: ).
\
\ 'extract' is used to divide the number being converted by the current
\ output radix, extracting a single digit which can be passed to 'digit'
\ for conversion.
\
\ 'hold' then takes this extracted and converted digit and places in the
\ hold space, this is where the string representing the number to be output
\ is held. It adds characters in reverse order to the hold space, which is
\ due to how 'extract' works, 'extract' gets the lowest digit first.
\
\ Lets look at how conversion would work for the number 1234 in base 10. We
\ start of the number to convert and extract the first digit:
\
\         1234 / 10 = 123, remainder 4 (hold ASCII 4)
\
\ We then add '4' to the hold space, which is the last digit that needs to
\ be output, hence storage in reverse order. We then continue on with the
\ output conversion:
\
\         123 / 10  = 12,  remainder 3 (hold ASCII 3)
\         12  / 10  = 1,   remainder 2 (hold ASCII 2)
\         1   / 10  = 0,   remainder 1 (hold ASCII 1)
\         0 <- conversion complete!
\
\ If we did not store the string in reverse order, we would end up printing
\ '4321' which is the exact opposite of what we want!
\
\ The words '<#', '#', and '#>' call these words to do the work of numeric
\ conversion, but before this is described,  Notice the checking that is done
\ within each of these words, 'hold' makes sure that too many characters are
\ not stored in the hold space. '#' checks the depth of the stack before it
\ is called and the base variable is only accessed with the 'radix' word.
\ This combination of checking catches most errors that occur and makes sure
\ they do not propagate.
 
\ @todo Check '?hold' works correctly
: hold  hld @ 1- dup hld ! c! fallthrough;              ( c -- )
h: ?hold hld @ pad $100 + u> if $11 -throw exit then ;  ( -- )
h: extract dup >r um/mod r> swap >r um/mod r> rot ;     ( ud ud -- ud u )
h: digit  9 over < 7 and + [char] 0 + ;                 ( u -- c )
 
\ The quartet formed by "<# # #s #>" look intimidating to the new comer, but
\ are quite simple. They allow the format of numeric output to be controlled
\ quite easily by the programmer. A description of these words:
\
\ * '<#' resets the hold space and initializes the conversion.
\ * '#'  extracts, converts and holds a single character.
\ * '#s' repeatedly calls '#' until the number has been fully converted.
\ * '#>' finalizes the conversion and pushes a string.
\
\ Anywhere within this conversion arbitrary characters can be added to
\ the hold space with 'hold'. These words should always be used together,
\ whenever you see '<#', you should see an enclosing '#>'. Once the '#>' has
\ been called the number provided has been fully converted to a number string
\ in the current output base, and can be printed or copied.
\
\ These words will go on to form more convenient words for numeric output,
\ like '.', or 'u.r'.
\
 
: #> 2drop hld @ pad over - ;                       ( w -- b u )
: # 2depth 0 base @ extract digit hold ;            ( d -- d )
: #s begin # 2dup d0= until ;                       ( d -- 0 )
: <# pad hld ! ;                                    ( -- )
 
\ 'sign' is used with the Pictured Numeric Output words to add a sign character
\ if the number is negative, 'str' is then defined to convert a number in any
\ base to its signed representation, in actual use however we will only use
\ 'str' for base 10 numeric output, we usually do not want to print the sign
\ of a number when operating with a hexadecimal base.
\
 
: sign  0< if [char] - hold exit then ;     ( n -- )
h: str ( n -- b u : convert a signed integer to a numeric string )
  dup>r abs 0 <# #s r> sign #> ;
 
\ '.r', 'u.r' are used as the basis of further words with a more controlled
\ output format. They implement right justification of a number (signed for
\ '.r', unsigned for 'u.r') by the number of spaces specified by the first
\ argument provided to them. This is useful for printing out columns of
\ data that is for human consumption.
\
\ 'u.' prints out an unsigned number with a trailing space, and '.' prints out
\ a signed number when operating in decimal, and an unsigned one otherwise,
\ again with a trailing space. Neither adds leading spaces.
\
 
h: (u.) 0 <# #s #> ;             ( u -- b u : turn 'u' into number string )
: u.r >r (u.) r> fallthrough;    ( u +n -- : print u right justified by +n)
h: adjust over- spaces type ;    ( b n n -- )
h: 5u.r 5 u.r ;                  ( u -- )
\ :  .r >r str r> adjust ;       ( n n -- : print n, right justified by +n )
: u.  (u.) space type ;          ( u -- : print unsigned number )
:  .  radix $a xor if u. exit then str space type ; ( n -- print number )
\ : d. base @ >r decimal  . r> base ! ;
\ : h. base @ >r hex     u. r> base ! ;
 
\ 'holds' and '.base' can be defined as so:
\
\        : holds begin dup while 1- 2dup + c@ hold repeat 2drop ;
\        : .base base @ dup decimal base ! ; ( -- )
\
\ If needed. '?' is another common utility for printing out the contents at an
\ address:
\
\        : ? @ . ; ( a -- : display the contents in a memory cell )
\
 
\ Words that use the numeric output words can be defined, '.free' can now
\ be defined which prints out the amount of space left in memory for programs
\
 
h: unused $4000 here - ;         ( -- u : unused program space )
h: .free unused u. ;             ( -- : print unused program space )
 
\ ### String Handling and Input
\ 'pack$' and '=string' are more advanced string handling words for copying
\ strings to a new location, turning it into a counted string, which 'pack$'
\ does, or for comparing two string, which '=string' does.
\
\ 'expect', 'query' and 'accept' are used for fetching a line of input which
\ can be further processed. Input in Forth is fundamentally line based, a
\ line is fetch from the terminal, which is then parsed into tokens delimited
\ by whitespace called words, which are then processed by the Forth
\ interpreter. On hosted systems the input typed into a terminal is usually
\ line buffered, you type in a line and hit return, then the line is passed
\ to the program reading from the terminal. This is not the case on all
\ systems, often it is the case that the Forth will be on a different target
\ and the programmer is talking to it via a serial port, the programmer sends
\ a character - not an entire line - and the Forth interpreter echos back a
\ character, or not. This means that the Forth interpreter has to mimic the
\ line handling normally provided by the terminal emulator. As this is a hosted
\ Forth it does not have to do this, however the capability to handle input
\ in this way is left commented out so the system is easier to port across
\ to such platforms. Either way, a line of text needs to be fetched from an
\ input stream.
\
\ First to describe 'pack$' and '=string'.
\
\ 'pack$' takes a string, its length, and a place which is assumed to be
\ large enough to store the string in as a final argument. Creates a counted
\ string and places it in the target location, this word is especially useful
\ for the creation of word headers which will be needed later.
\
\ '=string' checks for string equality, as it has the length of both strings
\ it checks their lengths first before proceeding to check all of the string,
\ this saves a little time. Only a yes/no to the comparison is returned as
\ a boolean answer, unlike 'strcmp' in C
\ (See: )
 
: pack$ ( b u a -- a ) \ null fill
  aligned dup>r over
  dup cell negate and ( align down )
  - over+ 0 swap! 2dup c! 1+ swap cmove r> ;
 
: =string ( a1 u2 a1 u2 -- t : string equality )
  >r swap r> ( a1 a2 u1 u2 )
  over xor if drop 2drop-0 exit then
  for ( a1 a2 )
    aft
      count >r swap count r> xor
      if rdrop 2drop-0 exit then
    then
  next 2drop [-1] ;
 
\ '^h' and 'ktap' are commented out as they are not needed, they deal with
\ line based input, some sections of 'tap' and 'accept' are commented out
\ as well as they are not needed on a hosted system, thus the job of 'accept'
\ is simplified. It is still worth talking about what these words do however,
\ in case they need to be added back in.
\
\ 'accept' is the word that does all of the work and calls '^h' and 'ktap' when
\ needed, 'query' and 'expect' a wrappers around it. Image we are talking to
\ the Forth interpreter over a serial line, if the programmer sends a character
\ to the Forth interpreter it is up to the Forth interpreter how to respond,
\ the remote interpreter needs to echo back characters to the programmer
\ otherwise they will be greeted with a blank terminal. Likewise the remote
\ Forth interpreter needs to process not only new lines, indicating a new
\ line of input should be accepted for processing, but it also needs to deal
\ with backspace characters, which are used to delete characters in the current
\ input line. It also needs to make sure it does not overflow the input buffer,
\ or when deleting characters go beyond the beginning of the input buffer.
\
\ 'accept' takes an address of an input buffer and a length of it, the words
\ '^h', 'tap' and 'ktap' are free to move around inside that buffer and do
\ so based on the latest character received.
\
\ '^h' takes a pointer to the bottom of the input buffer, one to the end of
\ the input buffer and the current position. It decrements the current position
\ within the buffer and uses 'echo' - not 'emit' - to output a backspace to
\ move the terminal cursor back one place, a space to erase the character and
\ a backspace to move the cursor back one space again. It only does this if it
\ will not go below the bottom of the input buffer.
\
\       : ^h ( bot eot cur -- bot eot cur )
\         >r over r@ < dup
\         if
\           =bs dup echo =bl echo echo
\         then r> + ;
\
\ 'ktap' processes the current character received, and has the same buffer
\ information that '^h' does, in fact it passes that information to '^h' to
\ process if the character is a backspace. It also handles the case where a
\ line feed, indicating a new line, has been entered. It returns a modified
\ buffer.
\
\       : ktap ( bot eot cur c -- bot eot cur )
\         dup =lf ( <-- was =cr ) xor
\         if =bs xor
\           if =bl tap else ^h then
\           exit
\         then drop nip dup ;
\
\ 'tap' is used to store a character in the current line, 'ktap' can also
\ call this word, 'tap' uses echo to echo back the character - it is currently
\ commented out as this is handled by the terminal emulator but would be
\ needed for serial communication.
 
h: tap ( dup echo ) over c! 1+ ; ( bot eot cur c -- bot eot cur )
 
\ 'accept' takes an buffer input buffer and returns a pointer and line length
\ once a line of text has been fully entered. A line is considered fully
\ entered when either a new line is received or the maximum number of input
\ characters in a line is received, 'accept' checks for both of these
\ conditions. It calls 'tap to do the work. In an alternate version it calls
\ the execution vector '', which is usually set to 'ktap', which is shown
\ as a commented out line.
\
 
: accept ( b u -- b u )
  over+ over
  begin
    2dupxor
  while
    key dup =lf xor if tap else drop nip dup then
    \ The alternative 'accept' code replaces the line above:
    \
    \   key  dup =bl - 95 u< if tap else  @execute then
    \
  repeat drop over- ;
 
\ '' is set to 'accept' later on in this file, but can be changed if
\ needed. 'expect' and 'query' both call 'accept' this way. 'query' uses the
\ systems input buffer and stores the result in a know location so that the
\ rest of the interpreter can use the results. 'expect' gets a buffer from the
\ use and stores the length of the resulting string in 'span'.
 
: expect  @execute span ! drop ;                     ( b u -- )
: query tib tib-length  @execute #tib ! drop-0 in! ; ( -- )
 
\ 'query' stores its results in the Terminal Input Buffer (TIB), which is way
\ the word 'tib' gets its name. The TIB is a simple data structure which
\ contains a pointer to the buffer itself and the length of the most current
\ input line.
 
\ Now we have a line based input system, and from the previous chapters we
\ also have numeric output, the Forth interpreter is starting to take shape.
 
\ ## Dictionary Words
\ These words either navigate around the word header, or search through the
\ dictionary to find a word, both word sets are related. This section now
\ requires an understanding on how this Forth lays out its word headers, each
\ Forth tends to do this in a slightly different way and more modern Forths
\ use more advanced (and more complex, perhaps un-forth-like) techniques.
\
\ The dictionary is organized into word lists, and these words lists are simply
\ linked lists of all the words in that list. To find a definition by name
\ we search through all of the word lists in the current search order following
\ the linked lists until they terminate.
\
\ This Forth, like Jones Forth (another literate Forth designed to teach how
\ a Forth interpreter works, see
\ ), lays
\ out its dictionary in a way that is simpler than having a separate storage
\ area for word names, but complicates other parts of the system. Most other
\ Forths have a separate space for string storage where names of words and
\ pointers to their code field are kept. This is how things were done in the
\ original eForth model.
\
\ A word list looks like this..
\
\         ^
\         |
\      .-----.-----.-----.----.----
\      | PWD | NFA | CFA | ...         <--- Word definition
\      .-----.-----.-----.----.----
\         ^        ^                ^
\         |        |--Word Body...  |
\         |
\      .-----.-----.-----.----.----
\      | PWD | NFA | CFA | ...
\      .-----.-----.-----.----.----
\      ^                 ^
\      |---Word Header---|
\
\
\
\ We 'PWD' is the Previous Word pointer, 'NFA' is the Name Field Address, and
\ the 'CFA' is the first code word in the Forth word. In other Forths this
\ is a special field, but as this is a Subroutine Threaded forth
\ (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threaded_code), designed to execute
\ on a Forth machine, this field does not need to do anything. It is simply
\ the first bit of code that gets executed in a Forth definition, and things
\ point to the 'CFA'. The rest of the word definition follows and includes the
\ 'CFA'. The 'NFA' is a variable length field containing the name of the
\ Forth word, it is stored as a counted string, which is what 'pack$' was
\ defined for.
\
\ The 'PWD' field is not just a simple pointer, as already mentioned, it is
\ also used to store information about the word, the top two most bits store
\ whether a word is compile only (the top most bit) meaning the word should
\ only be used within a word definition, being compiled into it, and whether
\ or not the word is an immediate word or not (the second highest bit in the
\ 'PWD' field). Another property of a word is whether it is an inline word
\ or not, which is a property of the location of where the word is defined,
\ and applies to words like 'r@' and 'r>', this is done by checking to see
\ if the word is between two sentinel values.
\
\ Immediate and compiling words are a very important concept in Forth, and it
\ is possible for the programmer to define their own immediate words. The
\ Forth Read-Evaluate loop is quite simple, as this diagram shows:
\
\         .--------------------------.        .----------------------------.
\      .->| Get Next Word From Input |<-------| Error: Throw an Exception! |
\      |  .--------------------------.        .----------------------------.
\      |    |                                           ^
\      |   \|/                                          | (No)
\      |    .                                           |
\      ^  .-----------------.  (Not Found)            .--------------------.
\      |  | Search For Word |------------------------>| Is token a number? |
\      |  .-----------------.                         .--------------------.
\      |    |                                           |
\      ^   \|/ (Found)                                 \|/ (Yes)
\      |    .                                           .
\      |  .-------------------------.            .-------------------------.
\      |  | Are we in command mode? |            | Are we in command mode? |
\      ^  .-------------------------.            .-------------------------.
\      |    |                   |                  |                     |
\      |   \|/ (Yes)            | (No)            \|/ (Yes)              | (No)
\      |    .                   |                  .                     |
\      |  .--------------.      |             .------------------------. |
\      .--| Execute Word |      |             | Push Number onto Stack | |
\      |  .--------------.      |             .------------------------. |
\      |         ^             \|/                 |                     |
\      ^         |              .                  |                    \|/
\      |         | (Yes)   .--------------------.  |                     .
\      |         ----------| Is word immediate? |  | .------------------------.
\      |                   .--------------------.  | | Compile number literal |
\      ^                        |                  | | into next available    |
\      |                       \|/ (No)            | | location in the        |
\      |                        .                  | | dictionary             |
\      |  .--------------------------------.       | .------------------------.
\      |  |    Compile Pointer to word     |       |                     |
\      .--| in next available location in  |       |                     |
\      |  |         the dictionary         |      \|/                   \|/
\      |  .--------------------------------.       .                     .
\      |                                           |                     |
\      .----<-------<-------<-------<-------<------.------<-------<------.
\
\ No matter how complex the Forth system may appear, this loop forms the heart
\ of it: parse a word and execute it or compile it, with numbers handled as
\ a special case. Immediate words are always executed, whereas compiling words
\ may be executed depending on whether we are in command mode, or in compile
\ mode, which is stored in the 'state' variable. There are several words that
\ affect the interpreter state, such as ':', ';', '[', and ']'.
\
\ We should now talk about some examples of immediate and compiling words,
\ ':' is a compiling word that when executed reads in a single token and
\ creates a new word header with this token. It does not add the new word
\ to the definition just yet. It also does one other things, it switches the
\ interpreter to compile mode, words that are not immediate are instead
\ compiled into the dictionary, as are numbers. This allows us to define
\ new words. However, we need immediate words so that we can break out of
\ compile mode, and enter back into command word so we can actually execute
\ something. ';' is an example of an immediate word, it is executed instead
\ of compiled into the dictionary, it switches the interpreter back into
\ command mode, as well as finishing off the word definition by compiling
\ an exit instructions into the dictionary, and adding the word into the
\ current definitions word list.
\
\ The control structure words, like 'if', 'for', and 'begin', are just words
\ as well, they are immediate words and will be explained later.
\
\ 'nfa' and 'cfa' both take a pointer to the 'PWD' field and adjust it to
\ point to different sections of the word.
 
: nfa address cell+ ; ( pwd -- nfa : move to name field address)
: cfa nfa dup c@ + cell+ $fffe and ;        ( pwd -- cfa )
 
\ '.id' prints out a words name field.
 
h: .id nfa print ;                          ( pwd -- : print out a word )
 
\ 'immediate?', 'compile-only?' and 'inline?' are the tests words that
\ all take a pointer to the 'PWD' field.
 
h: immediate? @ $4000 and fallthrough;      ( pwd -- t : immediate word? )
h: logical 0= 0= ;                          ( n -- t )
h: compile-only? @ 0x8000 and logical ;     ( pwd -- t : is compile only? )
h: inline? inline-start inline-end within ; ( pwd -- t : is word inline? )
 
\ Now we know the structure of the dictionary we can define some words that
\ work with it. We will define 'find' and 'search-wordlist', which will
\ be derived from 'finder' and 'searcher'. 'searcher' will attempt to
\ find a word in a specific word list, and 'find' will attempt to find a
\ word in all the word lists in the current order.
\
\ 'searcher' and 'finder' both return as much information about the words
\ they find as possible, if they find them. 'searcher' returns
\ the 'PWD' of the word that points to the found word, the 'PWD' of the
\ found word and a number indicating whether the found word is immediate
\ (1) or a compiling word (-1). It returns zero, the original counted string,
\ and another zero if the word could not be found in its first argument, a word
\ list (wid). The word is provided as a counted string in the second argument
\ to 'searcher'.
\
\ 'finder' wraps up 'searcher' and applies it to all the words in the
\ search order. It returns the same values as 'searcher' if a word is found,
\ returns the original counted word string address if it was not found, as
\ well as zeros.
\
 
h: searcher ( a wid -- pwd pwd 1 | pwd pwd -1 | 0 a 0 : find a word in a WID )
  swap >r dup
  begin
    dup
  while
    dup nfa count r@ count =string
    if ( found! )
      dup immediate? if 1 else [-1] then
      rdrop exit
    then
    nip dup @address
  repeat
  rdrop 2drop-0 ;
 
h: finder ( a -- pwd pwd 1 | pwd pwd -1 | 0 a 0 : find a word dictionary )
  >r
  context
  begin
    dup-@
  while
    dup-@ @ r@ swap searcher ?dup
    if
      >r rot drop r> rdrop exit
    then
    cell+
  repeat drop-0 r> 0x0000 ;
 
\ 'search-wordlist' and 'find' are simple applications of 'searcher' and
\ 'finder', there is a difference between this Forths version of 'find' and
\ the standard one, this version of 'find' does not return an execution token
\ but a pointer in the word header which can be turned into an execution token
\ with 'cfa'.
 
: search-wordlist searcher rot drop ; ( a wid -- pwd 1 | pwd -1 | a 0 )
: find ( a -- pwd 1 | pwd -1 | a 0 : find a word in the dictionary )
  finder rot drop ;
 
\ ## Numeric Input
\ Numeric input is handled next, converting a string into a number, which is
\ similar to numeric output. First we define a series of words for checking
\ whether a character belongs to a certain character class, whether it is
\ a decimal number, or whether it is lowercase, and a word for converting
\ uppercase letters to lower case, as numbers above base ten use the alphabet
\ to represent numbers and can be input in either case.
\
 
h: decimal?   [char] 0 [char] : within ; ( c -- t : decimal char? )
h: lowercase? [char] a [char] { within ; ( c -- t )
h: uppercase? [char] A [char] [ within ; ( c -- t )
h: >lower                                ( c -- c : convert to lower case )
  dup uppercase? if =bl xor exit then ;
 
\ 'numeric?' determines whether a character is possibly a number character
\ in any base, from base 2 to base 36, and converts it to a numeric value
\ if it is, or returns -1 if it is a non-numeric character.
 
h: numeric? ( char -- n|-1 : convert character in 0-9 a-z range to number )
  >lower
  dup lowercase? if $57 - exit then ( 97 = 'a', +10 as 'a' == 10 )
  dup decimal?   if [char] 0 - exit then
  drop [-1] ;
 
\ 'digit?' restricts the output of 'numeric?' to numbers within the current
\ numeric radix, so if the current base is 16, characters '0-9', 'a-f' and
\ 'A-F' all return the boolean value as true for when passed to 'digit?', but
\ characters outside this range return false.
\
 
h: digit? >lower numeric? base @ u< ; ( c -- t : is char a digit given base )
 
\ (number) does the work of the numeric conversion, getting a character
\ from an input array, converting the character to a number, multiplying it
\ by the current input base and adding in to the number being converted. It
\ stops on the first non-numeric character.
\
\ (number) accepts a string as an address-length pair which are the first
\ two arguments, and a starting number for the number conversion (which is
\ usually zero). (number) returns a string containing the unconverted
\ characters, if any, as well as the converted number.
\
 
\ @todo Fix (number) to work with double cell numbers
h: (number) ( n b u -- n b u : convert string to number )
  begin
    ( get next character )
    2dup 2>r drop c@ dup digit? ( n char bool, Rt: b u )
    if   ( n char )
      swap base @ * swap numeric? + ( accumulate number )
    else ( n char )
      drop
      2r> ( restore string )
      nop exit
    then
    2r> ( restore string )
    +string dup 0= ( advance string and test for end )
  until ;
 
\ 'negative?' and 'base?' should be thought of as working in conjunction
\ with '>number' only. Numbers can have certain prefixes which change the
\ interpretation of the number, for example a prefix of '-' means the number
\ is negative, a '$' prefix means the number is hexadecimal regardless of the
\ current input base, and a '#' prefix (which is a less common prefix) means
\ the number is decimal. 'negative?' handles the negative case, and could
\ potentially be used as standalone word, however using 'base?' comes with
\ caveats, it changes the current base if one of the base changing prefixes
\ is encountered, '>number' is careful to restore the base back to what it
\ was when it uses 'base?'.
\
 
h: negative? ( b u -- t : is >number negative? )
  string@ [char] - = if +string [-1] exit then 0x0000 ;
 
h: base? ( b u -- )
  string@ [char] $ = ( $hex )
  if
    +string hex exit
  then ( #decimal )
  string@ [char] # = if +string decimal exit then ;
 
\ '>number' converts a string in its entirety, it takes all the same arguments
\ as (number) and passes them to it to do the work, but not before doing
\ the prefix handling. After it does the base restoration. It returns the
\ same arguments as (number)
 
\ @todo '>number' should accept a double cell number and return one
 
\ : digit? ( c base -- u f )
\  >r [char] 0 - 9 over <
\  if 7 - dup 10 < or then dup r> u< ;
 
\ : >number ( ud a u -- ud a u )
\  begin dup
\  while >r  dup >r c@ base @ digit?
\  while swap base @ um* drop rot base @ um* d+ r> char+ r> 1 -
\  repeat drop r> r> then ;
 
: >number ( n b u -- n b u : convert string )
  radix >r
  negative? >r
  base?
  (number)
  r> if rot negate -rot then
  r> base ! ;
 
\ '>number' is a generic word, but awkward to use, it contains information
\ that the programmer probably does not need to know, 'number?' does some
\ processing of the results to '>number', a string containing a number to
\ be converted it passed in, and a boolean is returned as well as the
\ converted number. The boolean indicates if the entire string was numeric
\ only
\
 
h: number? 0 -rot >number nip 0= ; ( b u -- n f : is number? )
 
\ ## Parsing
\ After a line of text has been fetched the line needs to be tokenized into
\ space delimited words, which is as complex as parsing gets in Forth.
\ Technically Forth has no fixed grammar as any Forth word is free to parse
\ the following input stream however it likes, but it is rare that to deviate
\ from the norm and words which do complex processing are highly discouraged.
\
 
h: -trailing ( b u -- b u : remove trailing spaces )
  for
    aft =bl over r@ + c@ <
      if r> 1+ exit then
    then
  next 0x0000 ;
 
h: lookfor ( b u c -- b u : skip until  succeeds )
  >r
  begin
    dup
  while
    string@ r@ - r@ =bl =  @execute if rdrop exit then
    +string
  repeat rdrop ;
 
h: skipTest if 0> exit then 0<> ; ( n f -- t )
h: scanTest skipTest invert ; ( n f -- t )
h: skipper ' skipTest  ! lookfor ; ( b u c -- u c )
h: scanner ' scanTest  ! lookfor ; ( b u c -- u c )
 
h: parser ( b u c -- b u delta )
  >r over r> swap 2>r
  r@ skipper 2dup
  r> scanner swap r> - >r - r> 1+ ;
 
: parse ( c -- b u ;  )
   >r tib in@ + #tib @ in@ - r> parser >in +! -trailing 0 max ;
: ) ; immediate ( -- : do nothing )
:  ( [char] ) parse 2drop ; immediate \ ) ( parse until matching paren )
: .( [char] ) parse type ; ( print out text until matching parenthesis )
: \ #tib @ in! ; immediate ( comment until new line )
h: ?length dup word-length u> if $13 -throw exit then ;
: word 1depth parse ?length here pack$ ; ( c -- a ;  )
: token =bl word ;                       ( -- a )
: char token count drop c@ ;             ( -- c;  )
 
\ ## The Interpreter
 
h: ?dictionary dup $3f00 u> if 8 -throw exit then ;
: , here dup cell+ ?dictionary cp! ! ; ( u -- : store 'u' in dictionary )
: c, here ?dictionary c! cp 1+! ;      ( c -- : store 'c' in the dictionary )
h: doLit 0x8000 or , ;                 ( n+ -- : compile literal )
: literal ( n -- : write a literal into the dictionary )
  dup 0x8000 and ( n > $7fff ? )
  if
    invert doLit =invert , exit ( store inversion of n the invert it )
  then
  doLit ( turn into literal, write into dictionary )
  ; compile-only immediate
 
h: make-callable chars $4000 or ; ( cfa -- instruction )
: compile, make-callable , ; ( cfa -- : compile a code field address )
h: $compile dup inline? if cfa @ , exit then cfa compile, ; ( pwd -- )
h: not-found source type $d -throw ; ( -- : throw 'word not found' )
 
h: ?compile dup compile-only? if source type $e -throw exit then ;
: (literal) state@ if postpone literal exit then ; ( u -- u | )
: interpret ( ??? a -- ??? : The command/compiler loop )
  find ?dup if
    state@
    if
      0> if cfa execute exit then ( <- immediate word )
      $compile exit               ( <- compiling word )
    then
    drop ?compile cfa execute exit
  then
  \ not a word
  dup count number? if
    nip  @execute exit
  then
  not-found ;
 
\ NB. 'compile' only works for words, instructions, and numbers below $8000
: compile  r> dup-@ , cell+ >r ; compile-only ( --:Compile next compiled word )
: immediate $4000 last fallthrough; ( -- : previous word immediate )
h: toggle tuck @ xor swap! ;        ( u a -- : xor value at addr with u )
\ : compile-only $8000 last toggle ;
 
: smudge last fallthrough;
h: (smudge) nfa $80 swap toggle ; ( pwd -- )
 
\ ## Strings
\ The string word set is quite small, there are words already defined for
\ manipulating strings such 'c@', and 'count', but they are not exclusively
\ used for strings. These woulds will allow string literals to be embedded
\ within word definitions.
\
\ Forth uses counted strings, at least traditionally, which contain the string
\ length as the first byte of the string. This limits the string length to
\ 255 characters, which is enough for our small Forth but is quite limiting.
\
\ More modern Forths either use NUL terminated strings, or larger counts
\ for their counted strings. Both methods have trade-offs.
 
\ NUL terminated strings allow for arbitrary lengths, and are often used by
\ programs written in C, or built upon the C runtime, along with their
\ libraries. NUL terminated strings cannot hold binary data however, and have
\ an overhead for string length related operations.
\
\ Using a larger count prefix obviously allows for larger strings, but it
\ is not standard and new words would have to be written, or new conventions
\ followed, when dealing with these strings. For example the 'count' word can
\ be used on the entire string if the string size is a single byte in size.
\ Another complication is how big should the length prefix be? 16, 32, or
\ 64-bit? This might depend on the intended use, the preferences of the
\ programmer, or what is most natural on the platform.
\
\ Another complication in modern string handling is UTF-8,
\  and other character encoding schemes,
\ which is something to be aware of, but not a subject we will go in to.
\
\ The issues described only talk about problems with Forths representation
\ of strings, nothing has even been said about the difficulty of using them
\ for string heavy applications!
\
\ Only a few string specific words will be defined, for compiling string
\ literals into a word definition, and for returning an address to a compiled
\ string. There are two things the string words will have to do; parse a
\ string from the input stream and compile the string and an action into
\ the dictionary. The action will be more complicated than it might seem as
\ the string literal will be compiled into a word definition, like code is, so
\ the action will have also manipulate the return stack so the string literal
\ is jumped over.
\
 
h: do$ r> r@ r> count + aligned >r swap >r ; ( -- a )
h: string-literal do$ nop ; ( -- a : do string NB. nop to fool optimizer )
h: .string do$ print ; ( -- : print string  )
 
\ To allow the metacompilers version of '."' and '$"' to work we will need
\ to populate two variables in the metacompiler with the correct actions.
[t] .string        tdoPrintString meta!
[t] string-literal tdoStringLit   meta!
 
h: parse-string [char] " word count + cp! ;              ( -- )
( , --, Run: -- b )
: $"  compile string-literal parse-string ; immediate compile-only
: ."  compile .string parse-string ; immediate compile-only ( , -- )
: abort [-1] (bye) ;                                           ( -- )
h: ?abort swap if print cr abort else drop then ;              ( u a -- )
h: (abort) do$ ?abort ;                                        ( -- )
: abort" compile (abort) parse-string ; immediate compile-only ( u -- )
 
\ ## Evaluator
\ With the following few words extra words we will have a working Forth
\ interpreter, capable of reading in a line of text and executing it. More
\ words will need to be defined to make the system usable, as well as some
\ house keeping.
\
\ 'quit' is the name for the word which implements the interpreter loop,
\ which is an odd name for its function, but this is what it is traditionally
\ called. 'quit' calls a few minor functions:
\
\ * '', which is the execution vector for the Forth prompt, its contents
\ are executed by 'eval'.
\ * '(ok)' defines the default prompt, it only prints 'ok' if we are in
\ command mode.
\ * '[' and ']' for changing the interpreter state to command and compile mode
\ respectively. Note that '[' must be an immediate word.
\ * 'preset' which resets the input line variables
\ * '?error' handles an error condition from 'throw', it forms the error
\ handling part of the error handler of last resort. It prints out the
\ non-zero error number that occurred and attempts to return the interpreter
\ into a sensible state.
\ * '?depth' checks for a stack underflow
\ * 'eval' tokenizes the current input line which 'quit' has fetched and
\ calls 'interpret' on each token until there is no more. Any errors that
\ occur within 'interpreter' or 'eval' will be caught by 'quit'.
 
h: preset tib-start #tib cell+ ! 0 in! 0 id ! ;
: ] [-1] state ! ;
: [   0  state ! ; immediate
 
h: ?error ( n -- : perform actions on error )
  ?dup if
    .             ( print error number )
    [char] ? emit ( print '?' )
    cr
    sp0 sp!       ( empty stack )
    preset        ( reset I/O streams )
    [             ( back into interpret mode )
    exit
  then ;
 
h: (ok) command? if ."  ok  " cr exit then ;  ( -- )
h: ?depth sp@ sp0 u< if 4 -throw exit then ;  ( u -- : depth check )
h: eval ( -- )
  begin
    token dup c@
  while
    interpret ?depth
  repeat drop  @execute ;
 
\ 'quit' can now be defined, it sets up the input line variables, sets the
\ interpreter into command mode, enters an infinite loop it does not exit
\ from, and within that loop it reads in a line of input, evaluates it and
\ processes any errors that occur, if any.
 
: quit preset [ begin query ' eval catch ?error again ; ( -- )
 
\ 'evaluate' is used to evaluate a string of text as if it were typed in by
\ the programmer. It takes an address and its length, this is used in the
\ word 'load'. It needs two new words apart from 'eval', which are 'get-input'
\ and 'set-input', these two words are used to retrieve and set the input
\ input stream, which 'evaluate' needs to manipulate. 'evaluate' saves the
\ current input stream specification and changes it to the new string,
\ restoring to what it was before the evaluation took place. It is careful
\ to catch errors and always perform the restore, any errors that thrown are
\ rethrown after the input is restored.
\
 
h: get-input source in@ id @  @ ;    ( -- n1...n5 )
h: set-input  ! id ! in! #tib 2! ;   ( n1...n5 -- )
: evaluate ( a u -- )
  get-input 2>r 2>r >r
 
  ' eval catch
  r> 2r> 2r> set-input
  throw ;
 
\ ## I/O Control
\ The I/O control section is a relic from eForth that is not really needed
\ in a hosted Forth, at least one where the terminal emulator used handles
\ things like line editing. It is left in here so it can be quickly be added
\ back in if this Forth were to be ported to an embed environment, one in
\ which communications with the Forth took place over a UART.
\
\ Open and reading from different files is also not needed, it is handled
\ by the virtual machine.
 
h: io! preset fallthrough;  ( -- : initialize I/O )
h: console ' rx?  ! ' tx!  ! fallthrough;
h: hand ' (ok)  ( ' drop <-- was emit )  ( ' ktap ) fallthrough;
h: xio  ' accept  ! (  ! ) (  ! )  ! ;
\ h: pace 11 emit ;
\ t: file ' pace ' drop ' ktap xio ;
 
\ ## Control Structures and defining words
\ The next set of words defines relating to control structures and defining
\ new words, along with some basic error checking for the control structures
\ (which is known as 'compiler security' in the Forth community). Some of the
\ words defined here are quite complex, even if their definitions are only
\ a few lines long.
\
\ Control structure words include 'if', 'else', 'then', 'begin', 'again',
\ 'until', 'for', 'next', 'recurse' and 'tail'. These words are all immediate
\ words and are also compile only.
\
\ New control structure words can be defined by the user quite easily, for
\ example a word called 'unless' can be made which executes a clause if the
\ test provided is false, which is the opposite of 'if'. This is one of the
\ many unique features of Forth, that new words can be defined.
\
\
 
h: ?check ( magic-number -- : check for magic number on the stack )
   magic <> if $16 -throw exit then ;
h: ?unique ( a -- a : print a message if a word definition is not unique )
  dup last @ searcher
  if
    ( source type )
    space
    2drop last-def @ nfa print  ."  redefined " cr exit
  then ;
h: ?nul ( b -- : check for zero length strings )
   count 0= if $a -throw exit then 1- ;
 
h: find-token token find 0= if not-found exit then ; ( -- pwd,   )
h: find-cfa find-token cfa ;                         ( -- xt,  )
: ' find-cfa state@ if postpone literal exit then ; immediate
: [compile] find-cfa compile, ; immediate compile-only  ( --,  )
: [char] char postpone literal ; immediate compile-only ( --,  : )
\ h: ?quit command? if $38 -throw exit then ;
: ; ( ?quit ) ?check =exit , [ fallthrough; immediate compile-only
h: get-current! ?dup if get-current ! exit then ; ( -- wid )
: : align here dup last-def ! ( "name", -- colon-sys )
    last , token ?nul ?unique count + cp! magic ] ;
: begin here  ; immediate compile-only      ( -- a )
: until chars $2000 or , ; immediate compile-only  ( a -- )
: again chars , ; immediate compile-only ( a -- )
h: here-0 here 0x0000 ;
h: >mark here-0 postpone again ;
: if here-0 postpone until ; immediate compile-only
: then fallthrough; immediate compile-only
h: >resolve here chars over @ or swap! ;
: else >mark swap >resolve ; immediate compile-only
: while postpone if ; immediate compile-only
: repeat swap postpone again postpone then ; immediate compile-only
h: last-cfa last-def @ cfa ;  ( -- u )
: recurse last-cfa compile, ; immediate compile-only
: tail last-cfa postpone again ; immediate compile-only
: create postpone : drop compile doVar get-current ! [ ;
: >body cell+ ; ( a -- a )
h: doDoes r> chars here chars last-cfa dup cell+ doLit ! , ;
: does> compile doDoes nop ; immediate compile-only
: variable create 0 , ;
: constant create ' doConst make-callable here cell- ! , ;
: :noname here-0 magic ]  ;
: for =>r , here ; immediate compile-only
: next compile doNext , ; immediate compile-only
: aft drop >mark postpone begin swap ; immediate compile-only
\ : doer create =exit last-cfa ! =exit ,  ;
\ : make ( "name1", "name2", -- : make name1 do name2 )
\  find-cfa find-cfa make-callable
\  state@
\  if
\    postpone literal postpone literal compile ! nop exit
\  then
\  swap! ; immediate
 
\ @todo Use a 'SMUDGE' system to hide the current word from the search order
\ @todo improve 'hide' so it unlinks a word from the linked list
: hide find-token (smudge) ; ( --,  : hide word by name )
 
\ ## Vocabulary Words
\ The vocabulary word set should already be well understood, if the
\ metacompiler has been, the vocabulary word set is how Forth organizes words
\ and controls visibility of words.
\
 
h: find-empty-cell 0 fallthrough; ( a -- )
h: find-cell >r begin dup-@ r@ <> while cell+ repeat rdrop ; ( u a -- a )
 
: get-order ( -- widn ... wid1 n : get the current search order )
  context
  find-empty-cell
  dup cell- swap
  context - chars dup>r 1- dup 0< if $32 -throw exit then
  for aft dup-@ swap cell- then next @ r> ;
 
xchange _forth-wordlist root-voc
: forth-wordlist _forth-wordlist ;
 
: set-order ( widn ... wid1 n -- : set the current search order )
  dup [-1] = if drop root-voc 1 set-order exit then
  dup #vocs > if $31 -throw exit then
  context swap for aft tuck ! cell+ then next 0 swap! ;
 
: forth root-voc forth-wordlist 2 set-order ; ( -- )
 
\ The name fields length in a counted string is used to store a bit
\ indicating the word is hidden. This is the highest bit in the count byte.
h: not-hidden? nfa c@ $80 and 0= ; ( pwd -- )
h: .words space
    begin
      dup
    while dup not-hidden? if dup .id space then @address repeat drop cr ;
: words
  get-order begin ?dup while swap dup cr u. colon @ .words 1- repeat ;
 
xchange root-voc _forth-wordlist
 
\ : previous get-order swap drop 1- set-order ; ( -- )
\ : also get-order over swap 1+ set-order ;     ( wid -- )
: only [-1] set-order ;                         ( -- )
\ : order get-order for aft . then next cr ;    ( -- )
\ : anonymous get-order 1+ here 1 cells allot swap set-order ; ( -- )
: definitions context @ set-current ;           ( -- )
h: (order)                                      ( w wid*n n -- wid*n w n )
  dup if
    1- swap >r (order) over r@ xor
    if
      1+ r> -rot exit
    then rdrop
  then ;
: -order get-order (order) nip set-order ;             ( wid -- )
: +order dup>r -order get-order r> swap 1+ set-order ; ( wid -- )
 
: editor decimal editor-voc +order ;                   ( -- )
\ : assembler root-voc assembler-voc 2 set-order ;     ( -- )
\ : ;code assembler ; immediate                        ( -- )
\ : code postpone : assembler ;                        ( -- )
 
\ xchange _forth-wordlist assembler-voc
\ : end-code forth postpone ; ; immediate ( -- )
\ xchange assembler-voc _forth-wordlist
 
\ ## Block Word Set
\ The block word set abstracts out how access to mass storage works in just
\ a handful of words. The main word is 'block', with the words 'update',
\ 'flush' and the variable 'blk' also integral to the working of the block
\ word set. All of the other words can be implemented upon these.
\
\ Block storage is an outdated, but simple, method of accessing
\ mass storage that demands little from the hardware or the system it is
\ implemented under, just that data can be transfered from memory to disk
\ somehow. It has no requirements that there be a file system, which is
\ perfect for embedded devices as well as upon the microcomputers it
\ originated on.
\
\ A 'Forth block' is 1024 byte long buffer which is backed by a mass
\ storage device, which we will refer to as 'disk'. Very compact programs
\ can be written that have their data stored persistently. Source can
\ and data can be stored in blocks and evaluated, which will be described
\ more in the 'Block editor' section of this document.
\
\ The 'block' word does most of the work. The way it is usually implemented
\ is as follows:
\
\ 1. A user provides a block number to the 'block' word. The block
\ number is checked to make sure it is valid, and an exception is thrown
\ if it is not.
\ 2. If the block if already loaded into a block buffer from disk, the
\ address of the memory it is loaded into is returned.
\ 3. If it was not, then 'block' looks for a free block buffer, loads
\ the 1024 byte section off disk into the block buffer and returns an
\ address to that.
\ 4. If there are no free block buffers then it looks for a block buffer
\ that is marked as being dirty with 'update' (which marks the previously
\ loaded block as being dirty when called), then transfers that dirty block
\ to disk. Now that there is a free block buffer, it loads the data that
\ the user wants off of disk and returns a pointer to that, as in the
\ previous bullet point. If none of the buffers are marked as dirty then
\ then any one of them could be reused - they have not been marked as being
\ modified so their contents could be retrieved off of disk if needed.
\ 5. Under all cases, before the address of the loaded block has been
\ returned, the variable 'blk' is updated to contain the latest loaded
\ block.
\
\ This word does a lot, but is quite simple to use. It implements a simple
\ cache where data is transfered back to disk only if needed, and multiple
\ sections of memory from disk can be loaded into memory at the same time.
\ The mechanism by which this happens is entirely hidden from the user.
\
\ This Forth implements 'block' in a slightly different way. The entire
\ virtual machine image is loaded at start up, and can be saved back to
\ disk (or small sections of it) with the "(save)" instruction. 'update'
\ marks the entire image as needing to be saved back to disk, whilst
\ 'flush' calls "(save)". 'block' then only has to check the block number
\ is within range, and return a pointer to the block number multiplied by
\ the size of a block - so this means that this version of 'block' is just
\ an index into main memory. This is similar to how 'colorForth' implements
\ its block word.
\
: update [-1] block-dirty ! ; ( -- )
h: blk-@ blk @ ;              ( -- k : retrieve current loaded block )
h: +block blk-@ + ;           ( -- )
: save 0 here (save) throw ;  ( -- : save blocks )
: flush block-dirty @ if 0 [-1] (save) throw exit then ; ( -- )
 
: block ( k -- a )
  1depth
  dup $3f u> if $23 -throw exit then
  dup blk !
  $a lshift ( <-- b/buf * ) ;
 
\ The block word set has the following additional words, which augment the
\ set nicely, they are 'list', 'load' and 'thru'. The 'list' word is used
\ for displaying the contents of a block, it does this by splitting the
\ block into 16 lines each, 64 characters long. 'load' evaluates a given
\ block, and 'thru' evaluates a range of blocks.
\
\ This is how source code was stored and evaluated during the microcomputer
\ era, as opposed to storing the source in named byte stream oriented files
\ as is common nowadays.
\
\ It is more difficult, but possible, to store and edit source code in this
\ manner, but it requires that the programmer(s) follow certain conventions
\ when editing blocks, both in how programs are split up, and how they are
\ formatted.
\
\ A block shown with 'list' might look like the following:
\
\          ----------------------------------------------------------------
\        0|( Simple Math Routines 31/12/1989 RJH 3/4                #20  ) |
\        1|                                                                |
\        2|: square dup * ; ( u -- u )                                     |
\        3|: sum-of-squares square swap square + ; ( u u -- u )            |
\        4|: even 1 and 0= ; ( u -- b )                                    |
\        5|: odd even 0= ;   ( u -- b )                                    |
\        6|: log >r 0 swap ( u base -- u )                                 |
\        7|  begin swap 1+ swap r@ / dup 0= until                          |
\        8|  drop 1- rdrop ;                                               |
\        9|: signum ( n -- -1 | 0 | 1 )                                    |
\       10|    dup 0> if drop 1 exit then                                  |
\       11|        0< if     -1 exit then                                  |
\       12|        0 ;                                                     |
\       13|: >< dup 8 rshift swap 8 lshift or ; ( u -- u : swap bytes )    |
\       14|: #digits dup 0= if 1+ exit then base @ log 1+ ;                |
\       15|                                                                |
\          ----------------------------------------------------------------
\
\ Longer comments for a source code block were stored in a 'shadow block',
\ which is only enforced by convention. One possible convention is to store
\ the source in even numbered blocks, and the comments in the odd numbered
\ blocks.
\
\ By storing a comment in the first line of a block a word called 'index'
\ could be used to make a table of contents all of the blocks available on
\ disk, 'index' simply displays the first line of each block within a block
\ range.
 
\ The common theme is that convention is key to successfully using blocks.
\
\ An example of using blocks to store data is how some old Forths used to
\ store their error messages. Instead of storing strings of error messages
\ in memory (either in RAM or ROM) they were stored in block storage, with
\ one error message per line. The error messages were stored in order, and
\ a word 'message' is used to convert an error code like '-4' to its error
\ string (the numbers and what they mean are standardized, there is a table
\ in the appendix), which was then printed out. The full list of the
\ standardized error messages can be stored in four blocks, and form a neat
\ and easy to use database.
\
 
h: c/l* ( c/l * ) 6 lshift ;            ( u -- u )
h: c/l/ ( c/l / ) 6 rshift ;            ( u -- u )
h: line swap block swap c/l* + c/l ;    ( k u -- a u )
h: loadline line evaluate ;             ( k u -- )
: load 0 l/b 1- for 2dup 2>r loadline 2r> 1+ next 2drop ; ( k -- )
h: pipe $7c emit ;                      ( -- )
\ h: .line line -trailing $type ;       ( k u -- )
h: .border 3 spaces c/l $2d nchars cr ; ( -- )
h: #line dup 2 u.r ;                    ( u -- u : print line number )
\ : thru over- for dup load 1+ next drop ; ( k1 k2 -- )
h: blank =bl fill ;                     ( b u -- )
\ : message l/b extract .line cr ;      ( u -- )
h: retrieve block drop ;                ( k -- )
: list                                  ( k -- )
  dup retrieve
  cr
  .border
 
    dup l/b <
  while
    2dup #line pipe line $type pipe cr 1+
  repeat .border 2drop ;
 
\ t: index ( k1 k2 -- : show titles for block k1 to k2 )
\  over- cr
\  for
\    dup 5u.r space pipe space dup 0 .line cr 1+
\  next drop ;
 
\ ## Booting
\ We are now nearing the end of this tutorial, after the boot sequence
\ word set has been completed we will have a working Forth system. The
\ boot sequence consists of getting the Forth system into a known working
\ state, checking for corruption in the image, and printing out a welcome
\ message. This behaviour can be changed if needed.
\
\ The boot sequence is as follows:
\
\ 1. The virtual machine starts execution at address 0 which will be set
\ to point to the word 'boot-sequence'.
\ 2. The word 'boot-sequence' is executed, which will run the word 'cold'
\ to perform the system setup.
\ 3. The word 'cold' checks that the image length and CRC in the image header
\ match the values it calculates, zeros blocks of memory, and initializes the
\ systems I/O.
\ 4. 'boot-sequence' continues execution by executing the execution token
\ stored in the variable ''. This is set to 'normal-running' by default.
\ 5. 'normal-running' prints out the welcome message by calling the word 'hi',
\ and then entering the Forth Read-Evaluate Loop, known as 'quit'. This should
\ not normally return.
\ 6. If the function returns, 'bye' is called, halting the virtual machine.
\
\ The boot sequence is modifiable by the user by either writing an execution
\ token to the '' variable, or by writing to a jump to a word into memory
\ location zero, if the image is saved, the next time it is run execution will
\ take place at the new location.
\
\ It should be noted that the self-check routine, 'bist', disables checking
\ in generated images by manipulating the word header once the check has
\ succeeded. This is because after the system boots up the image is going
\ to change in RAM soon after 'cold' has finished, this could be organized
\ better so only sections of memory that do not (or should not change) get
\ checked, one way this could be achieved is by locating all variables
\ in specific sections, and checking only code. This has the advantage that
\ the system image could be stored in Read Only Memory (ROM), which would
\ facilitate porting the system to low memory systems, such as a
\ microcontroller as they only have a few kilobytes of RAM to work with. The
\ virtual machine primitives for load and store could be changed so that
\ reads get mapped to RAM or ROM based on their address, and writes to RAM
\ also (with attempted writes to ROM throwing an exception). The image is
\ only 6KiB in size, and only a few kilobytes are needed in RAM for a working
\ forth image, perhaps as little as ~2-4 KiB.
\
\ A few other interesting things could be done during the execution of 'cold',
\ the image could be compressed by the metacompiler and the boot sequence
\ could decompress it (which would require the decompressor to be one of the
\ first things to run). Experimenting with various schemes it appears
\ Adaptive Huffman Coding
\ (see ) produces
\ the best results, followed by LZSS (see
\ ). The schemes
\ are also simple and small enough (both in size and memory requirements)
\ that they could be implemented in Forth.
\
\ Another possibility is to obfuscate the image by exclusive or'ing it with
\ a value to frustrate the reserve engineering of binaries, or even to
\ encrypt it and ask for the decryption key on startup.
\
\ Obfuscation and compression are more difficult to implement than a simple
\ CRC check and require a more careful organization and control of the
\ boot sequence than is provided. It is possible to make 'turn-key'
\ applications that start execution at an arbitrary point (call 'turn-key'
\ because all the user has to do is 'turn the key' and the program is ready
\ to go) by setting the boot variable to the desired word and saving the
\ image with 'save'.
\
 
h: check-header? header-options @ first-bit 0= ; ( -- t )
h: disable-check $1 header-options toggle ;      ( -- )
 
\ 'bist' checks the length field in the header matches 'here' and that the
\ CRC in the header matches the CRC it calculates in the image, it has to
\ zero the CRC field out first.
 
h: bist ( -- u : built in self test )
  check-header? if 0x0000 exit then       ( is checking disabled? Success? )
  header-length @ here xor if 2 exit then ( length check )
  header-crc @ 0 header-crc !             ( retrieve and zero CRC )
 
  disable-check 0x0000 ;                  ( disable check, success )
 
\ 'cold' performs the self check, and exits if it fails. It then
\ goes on to zero memory, set the initial value of 'blk', set the I/O
\ vectors to sensible values, set the vocabularies to the default search
\ order and reset the variable stack.
 
: cold ( -- : performs a cold boot  )
   bist ?dup if negate (bye) exit then
   $10 block b/buf 0 fill
   $12 retrieve io!
   forth sp0 sp!
    @execute bye ;
 
\ 'hi' prints out the welcome message,
 
h: hi hex cr ." eFORTH V " ver 0 u.r cr here . .free cr [ ; ( -- )
h: normal-running hi quit ;                 ( -- : boot word )
 
\ ## See : The Forth Disassembler
 
\ @warning This disassembler is experimental, and not liable to work
\ @todo improve this with better output and exit detection.
\ 'see' could be improved with a word that detects when the end of a
\ word actually occurs, and with a disassembler for instructions. The output
\ could also be better formatted, or optionally made to be more or less
\ verbose. Another improvement would be to do the word lookup for branches
\ that occur outside of the word definition, or prior to it, as there
\ are many words which have been turned into tail calls - or a single
\ branch.
 
\ @todo handle various special cases in the decompiler
\ Such as literals spanning two instructions, merged exits, tail calls,
\ variables, constants, created words, strings and possibly more.
 
h: validate tuck cfa <> if drop-0 exit then nfa ; ( cfa pwd -- nfa | 0 )
 
h: search-for-cfa ( wid cfa -- nfa : search for CFA in a word list )
  address cells >r
  begin
    dup
  while
    address dup r@ swap dup-@ address swap within ( simplify? )
    ( @bug does not continue with search if validate fails )
    if @address r> swap validate exit then
    address @
  repeat rdrop ;
 
h: name ( cwf -- a | 0 )
   >r
   get-order
   begin
     dup
   while
     swap r@ search-for-cfa ?dup if >r 1- ndrop r> rdrop exit then
   1- repeat rdrop ;
 
h: .name name ?dup 0= if $" ???" then print ;
h: ?instruction ( i m e -- i 0 | e -1 )
   >r over and r> tuck = if nip [-1] exit then drop-0 ;
 
h: .instruction ( u -- u )
   0x8000  0x8000 ?instruction if ." LIT " exit then
   $6000   $6000  ?instruction if ." ALU " exit then
   $6000   $4000  ?instruction if ." CAL " exit then
   $6000   $2000  ?instruction if ." BRZ " exit then
   drop-0 ." BRN " ;
 
: decompile ( u -- : decompile instruction )
   dup .instruction $4000 =
   if space .name exit then drop ;
 
h: decompiler ( previous current -- : decompile starting at address )
  >r
   begin dup r@ u< while
     dup 5u.r colon space
     dup-@
     dup 5u.r space decompile cr cell+
   repeat rdrop drop ;
 
\ 'see' is the Forth disassembler, it takes a word and (attempts) to
\ turn it back into readable Forth source code. The disassembler is only
\ a few hundred bytes in size, which is a testament to the brevity achievable
\ with Forth.
\
\ If the word 'see' was good enough we could potentially dispense with the
\ source code entirely: the entire dictionary could be disassembled and saved
\ to disk, modified, then recompiled yielding a modified Forth. Although
\ comments would not be present, meaning this would be more of an intellectual
\ exercise than of any utility.
 
: see ( --,  : decompile a word )
  token finder 0= if not-found exit then
  swap      2dup= if drop here then >r
  cr colon space dup .id space dup cr
  cfa r> decompiler space $3b emit
  dup compile-only? if ."  compile-only  " then
  dup inline?       if ."  inline  "       then
      immediate?    if ."  immediate  "    then cr ;
 
\ A few useful utility words will be added next, which are not strictly
\ necessary but are useful. Those are '.s' for examining the contents of the
\ variable stack, and 'dump' for showing the contents of a section of memory
\
\ The '.s' word must be careful not to alter that variable stack whilst
\ trying to print it out. It uses the word 'pick' to achieve this, otherwise
\ there is nothing special about this word, and it is very useful for
\ debugging code interactively to see what its stack effects are.
\
\ The dump keyword is fairly useful for the implementer so that they can
\ use Forth to debug if the compilation is working, or if a new word
\ is producing the correct assembly. It can also be used as a utility to
\ export binary sections of memory as text.
\
\ The programmer might want to edit the 'dump' word to customize its output,
\ the addition of the 'dc+' word is one way it could be extended, which is
\ commented out below. Like 'dm+', 'dc+' operates on a single line to
\ be displayed, however 'dc+' decompiles the memory into human readable
\ instructions instead of numbers, unfortunately the lines it produces are
\ too long.
\
\ Normally the word 'dump' outputs the memory contents in hexadecimal,
\ however a design decision was taken to output the contents of memory in
\ what the current numeric output base is instead. This makes the word
\ more flexible, more consistent and shorter, than it otherwise would be as
\ the current output base would have to be saved and then restored.
\
 
: .s cr depth for aft r@ pick . then next ."  
h: dm+ chars for aft dup-@ space 5u.r cell+ then next ;        ( a u -- a )
\ h: dc+ chars for aft dup-@ space decompile cell+ then next ; ( a u -- a )
 
: dump ( a u -- )
  $10 + \ align up by dump-width
  4 rshift ( <-- equivalent to "dump-width /" )
  for
    aft
      cr dump-width 2dup
      over 5u.r colon space
      dm+ ( dump-width dc+ ) \ <-- dc+ is optional
      -rot
      2 spaces $type
    then
  next drop ;
 
\ The standard Forth dictionary is now complete, but the variables containing
\ the word list need to be updated a final time. The next section implements
\ the block editor, which is in the 'editor' word set. Their are two variables
\ that need updating, '_forth-wordlist', a vocabulary we have already
\ encountered. An 'current', which contains a pointer to a word list, this
\ word list is the one new definitions (defined by ':', or 'create') are
\ added to. It will be set to '_forth-wordlist' so new definitions are added
\ to the default vocabulary.
[last]              [t] _forth-wordlist t!
[t] _forth-wordlist [t] current         t!
 
\ ## Block Editor
\ This block editor is an excellent example of a Forth application; it is
\ small, terse, and uses the facilities already built into Forth to do all
\ of the heavy lifting, specifically vocabularies, the block word set and
\ the text interpreter.
\
\ Forth blocks used to be the canonical way of storing both source code and
\ data within a Forth system, it is a simply way of abstracting out how mass
\ storage works and worked well on the microcomputers available in the 1980s.
\ With the rise of computers with a more capable operating system the Block
\ Word Set (See ) fell out of
\ favour, being replaced instead by the File Access Word Set
\ (See ), allowing named files
\ to be accessed as a byte stream.
\
\ To keep things simple this editor uses the block word set and in typical
\ Forth fashion simplifies the problem to the extreme, whilst also sacrificing
\ usability and functionally - the block editor allows for the editing of
\ programs but it is more difficult and more limited than traditional editors.
\ It has no spell checking, or syntax highlighting, and does little in the
\ way of error checking. But it is very small, compact, easy to understand, and
\ if needed could be extended.
\
\ The way this editor works is by replacing the current search order with
\ a set of words that implement text editing on the currently loaded block,
\ as well as managing what block is loaded. The defined words are short,
\ often just a single letter long.
\
\ The act of editing text is simplified as well, instead of keeping track of
\ variable width lines of text and files, a single block (1024 characters) is
\ divided up into 16 lines, each 64 characters in length. This is the essence
\ of Forth, radically simplifying the problem from all possible angels; the
\ algorithms used, the software itself and where possible the hardware. Not
\ every task can be approached this way, nor would everyone be happy with
\ the results, the editor being presented more as a curiosity than anything
\ else.
\
\ We have a way of loading and saving data from disks (the 'block', 'update'
\ and 'flush' words) as well as a way of viewing the data  in a block (the
\ 'list' word) and evaluating the text within a block (with the 'load' word).
\ The variable 'blk' is also of use as it holds the latest block we have
\ retrieved from disk. By defining a new word set we can skip the part of
\ reading in a parsing commands and numbers, we can use text interpreter and
\ line oriented input to do the work for us, as discussed.
\
\ Only one extra word is actually need given the words we already have, one
\ which can destructively replace a line starting at a given column in the
\ currently loaded block. All of the other commands are simple derivations
\ of existing words. This word is called 'ia', short for 'insert at', which
\ takes two numeric arguments (starting line as the first, and column as the
\ second) and reads all text on the line after the 'ia' and places it at the
\ specified line/column.
\
\ The command description and their definitions are the best descriptions
\ of how this editor works. Try to use the word set interactively to get
\ a feel for it:
\
\ | A1 | A2 | Command |                Description                 |
\ | -- | -- | ------- | ------------------------------------------ |
\ | #2 | #1 |  ia     | insert text into column #1 on line #2      |
\ |    | #1 |  i      | insert text into column  0 on line #1      |
\ |    | #1 |  b      | load block number #1                       |
\ |    | #1 |  d      | blank line number #1                       |
\ |    |    |  x      | blank currently loaded block               |
\ |    |    |  l      | redisplay currently loaded block           |
\ |    |    |  q      | remove editor word set from search order   |
\ |    |    |  n      | load next block                            |
\ |    |    |  p      | load previous block                        |
\ |    |    |  s      | save changes to disk                       |
\ |    |    |  e      | evaluate block                             |
\
\ An example command session might be:
\
\ | Command Sequence         | Description                             |
\ | ------------------------ | --------------------------------------- |
\ | editor                   | add the editor word set to search order |
\ | $20 b l                  | load block $20 (hex) and display it     |
\ | x                        | blank block $20                         |
\ | 0 i .( Hello, World ) cr | Put ".( Hello, World ) cr" on line 0    |
\ | 1 i 2 2 + . cr           | Put "2 2 + . cr" on line 1              |
\ | l                        | list block $20 again                    |
\ | e                        | evaluate block $20                      |
\ | s                        | save contents                           |
\ | q                        | unload block word set                   |
\
\ See:  for the origin of
\ this block editor, and for different implementations.
 
 
h: [block] blk-@ block ;       ( k -- a : loaded block address )
h: [check] dup b/buf c/l/ u>= if $18 -throw exit then ;
h: [line] [check] c/l* [block] + ; ( u -- a )
: b retrieve ;                 ( k -- : load a block )
: l blk-@ list ;               ( -- : list current block )
: n  1 +block b l ;            ( -- : load and list next block )
: p [-1] +block b l ;          ( -- : load and list previous block )
: d [line] c/l blank ;         ( u -- : delete line )
: x [block] b/buf blank ;      ( -- : erase loaded block )
: s update flush ;             ( -- : flush changes to disk )
: q editor-voc -order ;        ( -- : quit editor )
: e q blk-@ load editor ;      ( -- : evaluate block )
: ia c/l* + [block] + source drop in@ + ( u u -- )
   swap source nip in@ - cmove postpone \ ;
: i 0 swap ia ;                ( u -- )
\ : u update ;                 ( -- : set block set as dirty )
\ : w words ;
\ : yank pad c/l ;
\ : c [line] yank >r swap r> cmove ;
\ : y [line] yank cmove ;
\ : ct swap y c ;
\ : ea [line] c/l evaluate ;
\ : sw 2dup y [line] swap [line] swap c/l cmove c ;
[last] [t] editor-voc t! 0 tlast meta!
 
\ ## Final Touches
 
there           [t] cp t!
[t] (literal) [v]  t! ( set literal execution vector )
[t] cold 2/ 0 t! ( set starting word )
[t] normal-running [v]  t!
 
there    6 tcells t! \ Set Length First!
checksum 7 tcells t! \ Calculate image CRC
 
finished
bye
 
# APPENDIX
 
## The Virtual Machine
 
The Virtual Machine is a 16-bit stack machine based on the [H2 CPU][], a
derivative of the [J1 CPU][], but adapted for use on a computer.
 
Its instruction set allows for a fairly dense encoding, and the project
goal is to be fairly small whilst still being useful.  It is small enough
that is should be easily understandable with little explanation, and it
is hackable and extensible by modification of the source code.
 
## Virtual Machine Memory Map
 
There is 64KiB of memory available to the Forth virtual machine, of which only
the first 16KiB can contain program instructions (or more accurately branch
locations can only be in the first 16KiB of memory). The virtual machine memory
can divided into three regions of memory, the applications further divide the
memory into different sections.
 
| Block   |  Region          |
| ------- | ---------------- |
| 0 - 15  | Program Storage  |
| 16      | User Data        |
| 17      | Variable Stack   |
| 18 - 62 | User data        |
| 63      | Return Stack     |
 
Program execution begins at address zero. The variable stack starts at the
beginning of block 17 and grows upwards, the return stack starts at the end of
block 63 and grows downward.
 
## Instruction Set Encoding
 
For a detailed look at how the instructions are encoded the source code is the
definitive guide, available in the file [forth.c][].
 
A quick overview:
 
        +---------------------------------------------------------------+
        | F | E | D | C | B | A | 9 | 8 | 7 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
        +---------------------------------------------------------------+
        | 1 |                    LITERAL VALUE                          |
        +---------------------------------------------------------------+
        | 0 | 0 | 0 |            BRANCH TARGET ADDRESS                  |
        +---------------------------------------------------------------+
        | 0 | 0 | 1 |            CONDITIONAL BRANCH TARGET ADDRESS      |
        +---------------------------------------------------------------+
        | 0 | 1 | 0 |            CALL TARGET ADDRESS                    |
        +---------------------------------------------------------------+
        | 0 | 1 | 1 |   ALU OPERATION   |T2N|T2R|N2T|R2P| RSTACK| DSTACK|
        +---------------------------------------------------------------+
        | F | E | D | C | B | A | 9 | 8 | 7 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
        +---------------------------------------------------------------+
 
        T   : Top of data stack
        N   : Next on data stack
        PC  : Program Counter
 
        LITERAL VALUES : push a value onto the data stack
        CONDITIONAL    : BRANCHS pop and test the T
        CALLS          : PC+1 onto the return stack
 
        T2N : Move T to N
        T2R : Move T to top of return stack
        N2T : Move the new value of T (or D) to N
        R2P : Move top of return stack to PC
 
        RSTACK and DSTACK are signed values (twos compliment) that are
        the stack delta (the amount to increment or decrement the stack
        by for their respective stacks: return and data)
 
### ALU Operations
 
The ALU can be programmed to do the following operations on an ALU instruction,
some operations trap on error (U/MOD, /MOD).
 
|  #  | Mnemonic | Description          |
| --- | -------- | -------------------- |
|  0  | T        | Top of Stack         |
|  1  | N        | Copy T to N          |
|  2  | R        | Top of return stack  |
|  3  | T@       | Load from address    |
|  4  | NtoT     | Store to address     |
|  5  | T+N      | Double cell addition |
|  6  | T\*N     | Double cell multiply |
|  7  | T&N      | Bitwise AND          |
|  8  | TorN     | Bitwise OR           |
|  9  | T^N      | Bitwise XOR          |
| 10  | ~T       | Bitwise Inversion    |
| 11  | T--      | Decrement            |
| 12  | T=0      | Equal to zero        |
| 13  | T=N      | Equality test        |
| 14  | Nu<T  | Unsigned comparison  |
| 15  | N<T   | Signed comparison    |
| 16  | NrshiftT | Logical Right Shift  |
| 17  | NlshiftT | Logical Left Shift   |
| 18  | SP@      | Depth of stack       |
| 19  | RP@      | R Stack Depth        |
| 20  | SP!      | Set Stack Depth      |
| 21  | RP!      | Set R Stack Depth    |
| 22  | SAVE     | Save Image           |
| 23  | TX       | Get byte             |
| 24  | RX       | Send byte            |
| 25  | U/MOD    | u/mod                |
| 26  | /MOD     | /mod                 |
| 27  | BYE      | Return               |
 
### Encoding of Forth Words
 
Many Forth words can be encoded directly in the instruction set, some of the
ALU operations have extra stack and register effects as well, which although
would be difficult to achieve in hardware is easy enough to do in software.
 
| Word   | Mnemonic | T2N | T2R | N2T | R2P |  RP |  SP |
| ------ | -------- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| dup    | T        | T2N |     |     |     |     | +1  |
| over   | N        | T2N |     |     |     |     | +1  |
| invert | ~T       |     |     |     |     |     |     |
| um+    | T+N      |     |     |     |     |     |     |
| \+     | T+N      |     |     | N2T |     |     | -1  |
| um\*   | T\*N     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
| \*     | T\*N     |     |     | N2T |     |     | -1  |
| swap   | N        | T2N |     |     |     |     |     |
| nip    | T        |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| drop   | N        |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| exit   | T        |     |     |     | R2P |  -1 |     |
| >r  | N        |     | T2R |     |     |   1 | -1  |
| r>  | R        | T2N |     |     |     |  -1 |  1  |
| r@     | R        | T2N |     |     |     |     |  1  |
| @      | T@       |     |     |     |     |     |     |
| !      | NtoT     |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| rshift | NrshiftT |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| lshift | NlshiftT |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| =      | T=N      |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| u<  | Nu<T  |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| <   | N<T   |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| and    | T&N      |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| xor    | T^N      |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| or     | T|N      |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| sp@    | SP@      | T2N |     |     |     |     |  1  |
| sp!    | SP!      |     |     |     |     |     |     |
| 1-     | T--      |     |     |     |     |     |     |
| rp@    | RP@      | T2N |     |     |     |     |  1  |
| rp!    | RP!      |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| 0=     | T=0      |     |     |     |     |     |     |
| nop    | T        |     |     |     |     |     |     |
| (bye)  | BYE      |     |     |     |     |     |     |
| rx?    | RX       | T2N |     |     |     |     |  1  |
| tx!    | TX       |     |     | N2T |     |     | -1  |
| (save) | SAVE     |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| u/mod  | U/MOD    | T2N |     |     |     |     |     |
| /mod   | /MOD     | T2N |     |     |     |     |     |
| /      | /MOD     |     |     |     |     |     | -1  |
| mod    | /MOD     |     |     | N2T |     |     | -1  |
| rdrop  | T        |     |     |     |     |  -1 |     |
 
## Interaction
 
The outside world can be interacted with in two ways, with single character
input and output, or by saving the current Forth image. The interaction is
performed by three instructions.
 
## eForth
 
The interpreter is based on eForth by C. H. Ting, with some modifications
to the model.
 
## eForth Memory model
 
The eForth model imposes extra semantics to certain areas of memory.
 
| Address       | Block  | Meaning                        |
| ------------- | ------ | ------------------------------ |
| $0000         |   0    | Start of execution             |
| $0002         |   0    | Trap Handler                   |
| $0004-EOD     |   0    | The dictionary                 |
| EOD-PAD1      |   ?    | Compilation and Numeric Output |
| PAD1-PAD2     |   ?    | Pad Area                       |
| PAD2-$3FFF    |   15   | End of dictionary              |
| $4000         |   16   | Interpreter variable storage   |
| $4400         |   17   | Start of variable stack        |
| $4800-$FBFF   | 18-63  | Empty blocks for user data     |
| $FC00-$FFFF   |   0    | Return stack block             |
 
## Error Codes
 
This is a list of Error codes, not all of which are used by the application.
 
| Hex  | Dec  | Message                                       |
| ---- | ---- | --------------------------------------------- |
| FFFF |  -1  | ABORT                                         |
| FFFE |  -2  | ABORT"                                        |
| FFFD |  -3  | stack overflow                                |
| FFFC |  -4  | stack underflow                               |
| FFFB |  -5  | return stack overflow                         |
| FFFA |  -6  | return stack underflow                        |
| FFF9 |  -7  | do-loops nested too deeply during execution   |
| FFF8 |  -8  | dictionary overflow                           |
| FFF7 |  -9  | invalid memory address                        |
| FFF6 | -10  | division by zero                              |
| FFF5 | -11  | result out of range                           |
| FFF4 | -12  | argument type mismatch                        |
| FFF3 | -13  | undefined word                                |
| FFF2 | -14  | interpreting a compile-only word              |
| FFF1 | -15  | invalid FORGET                                |
| FFF0 | -16  | attempt to use zero-length string as a name   |
| FFEF | -17  | pictured numeric output string overflow       |
| FFEE | -18  | parsed string overflow                        |
| FFED | -19  | definition name too long                      |
| FFEC | -20  | write to a read-only location                 |
| FFEB | -21  | unsupported operation                         |
| FFEA | -22  | control structure mismatch                    |
| FFE9 | -23  | address alignment exception                   |
| FFE8 | -24  | invalid numeric argument                      |
| FFE7 | -25  | return stack imbalance                        |
| FFE6 | -26  | loop parameters unavailable                   |
| FFE5 | -27  | invalid recursion                             |
| FFE4 | -28  | user interrupt                                |
| FFE3 | -29  | compiler nesting                              |
| FFE2 | -30  | obsolescent feature                           |
| FFE1 | -31  | >BODY used on non-CREATEd definition       |
| FFE0 | -32  | invalid name argument (e.g., TO xxx)          |
| FFDF | -33  | block read exception                          |
| FFDE | -34  | block write exception                         |
| FFDD | -35  | invalid block number                          |
| FFDC | -36  | invalid file position                         |
| FFDB | -37  | file I/O exception                            |
| FFDA | -38  | non-existent file                             |
| FFD9 | -39  | unexpected end of file                        |
| FFD8 | -40  | invalid BASE for floating point conversion    |
| FFD7 | -41  | loss of precision                             |
| FFD6 | -42  | floating-point divide by zero                 |
| FFD5 | -43  | floating-point result out of range            |
| FFD4 | -44  | floating-point stack overflow                 |
| FFD3 | -45  | floating-point stack underflow                |
| FFD2 | -46  | floating-point invalid argument               |
| FFD1 | -47  | compilation word list deleted                 |
| FFD0 | -48  | invalid POSTPONE                              |
| FFCF | -49  | search-order overflow                         |
| FFCE | -50  | search-order underflow                        |
| FFCD | -51  | compilation word list changed                 |
| FFCC | -52  | control-flow stack overflow                   |
| FFCB | -53  | exception stack overflow                      |
| FFCA | -54  | floating-point underflow                      |
| FFC9 | -55  | floating-point unidentified fault             |
| FFC8 | -56  | QUIT                                          |
| FFC7 | -57  | exception in sending or receiving a character |
| FFC6 | -58  | [IF], [ELSE], or [THEN] exception             |
 

 
| Hex  | Dec  | Message                                       |
| ---- | ---- | --------------------------------------------- |
| FFC5 | -59  | ALLOCATE                                      |
| FFC4 | -60  | FREE                                          |
| FFC3 | -61  | RESIZE                                        |
| FFC2 | -62  | CLOSE-FILE                                    |
| FFC1 | -63  | CREATE-FILE                                   |
| FFC0 | -64  | DELETE-FILE                                   |
| FFBF | -65  | FILE-POSITION                                 |
| FFBE | -66  | FILE-SIZE                                     |
| FFBD | -67  | FILE-STATUS                                   |
| FFBC | -68  | FLUSH-FILE                                    |
| FFBB | -69  | OPEN-FILE                                     |
| FFBA | -70  | READ-FILE                                     |
| FFB9 | -71  | READ-LINE                                     |
| FFB8 | -72  | RENAME-FILE                                   |
| FFB7 | -73  | REPOSITION-FILE                               |
| FFB6 | -74  | RESIZE-FILE                                   |
| FFB5 | -75  | WRITE-FILE                                    |
| FFB4 | -76  | WRITE-LINE                                    |
 
## To Do / Wish List
 
* Relative jumps could be used instead of absolute jumps in the code, this
would make relocation easier, and could make all code position independent. It
may also make the resulting code easier to compress, especially if the
majority of jumps are to near locations. Perhaps relative addressing should
only be used for branches and not calls, or vice versa. Absolute jumps could
be faked if needed with the correct wordset, self modifying code, or the
correct compliation methods.
* More assertions and range checks should be added to the interpreter, for
example the **save** function needs checks for bounds.
* The forth virtual machine in [forth.c][] should be made to be crash proof,
with checks to make sure indices never go out of bounds.
* Documentation could be extracted from the [meta.fth][] file, which should
describe the entire system: The metacompiler, the target virtual machine,
and how Forth works.
* Add more references, and turn this program into a literate file.
   - Compression routines would be a nice to have feature for reducing
   the saved image size. LZSS could be used, see:
   
   Adaptive Huffman encoding performs even better.
   - Talk about and write about:
     - Potential additions
     - The philosophy of Forth
     - How the meta compiler words
     - Implementing allocation routines, and floating point routines
     - Compression and the similarity of Forth Factoring and LZW compression
* This Forth needs a series of unit tests to make sure the basic functionality
of all the words is correct
* This Forth lacks a version of 'FORGET', as well as 'MARKER', which is
unfortunate, as they are useful. This is due to how word lists are
implemented.
* For Floating Point Routines, written in portable Forth for a 16-bit platform,
look at the Forth Dimensions magazine, volume 4, issue 1
* One possible exercise would be to reduce the image size to its absoluate
minimum, by removing unneeded functionality for the metacompilation process,
such as the block editor, and 'see', as well as any words not actually used
in the metacompilation process.
* An image could be prepared with the smallest possible Forth interpreter,
it would not necessarily have to be able to meta-compile.
* A more traditional block storage method would be more useful, instead of
saving sections of the virtual machine image a 'block transfer' instruction
could be made, which would index into a file and retrieve/create blocks, which
would allow much more memory to be used as mass storage (65536*1024 Bytes).
* Look at the libforth test bench and reimplement it
* Talk about making 'state' an execution token, with '[' and ']' just changing
the value of state.
* Allow an arbitrary character to be used for numeric output alignment, not
just spaces. This would allow leading zeros to be added to numbers.
* Some more words need adding in, like "postpone", "[']", "[if]", "[else]",
"[then]", "T{", "}T", ... Of note is that "postpone" would have to deal
with inlineable words.
: [[ ;     \ Stop postponing
: ]]
  begin
    >in @ ' ['] [[ <>
  while
    >in ! postpone postpone
  repeat
  drop ; immediate
* For the words with vectored exection, it might be a good idea to create
default actions if the vector is null, currently the default action is to
do nothing. For example:
 
   : emit  ?dup if @execute exit then drop ;
   : key    ?dup if @execute exit then -1 ( -1 = end of file ) ;
   ( An alternative version of 'key' would be: )
   : key    ?dup if @execute exit then rx? ;
 
 
## Virtual Machine Implementation in C
 
/** @file      forth.c
 *  @brief     Forth Virtual Machine
 *  @copyright Richard James Howe (2017)
 *  @license   MIT */
 
#include 
#include 
#include 
#include 
#include 
#include 
 
#define CORE (65536u)  /* core size in bytes */
#define SP0  (8704u)   /* Variable Stack Start: 8192 + 512 */
#define RP0  (32767u)  /* Return Stack Start: end of CORE in words */
 
#ifdef TRON
#define TRACE(PC,I,SP,RP) \
  fprintf(stderr, "%04x %04x %04x %04x\n", (unsigned)(PC), (unsigned)(I),\
                                           (unsigned)(SP), (unsigned)(RP));
#else
#define TRACE(PC, I, SP, RP)
#endif
 
typedef uint16_t uw_t;
typedef int16_t  sw_t;
typedef uint32_t ud_t;
 
typedef struct {
  uw_t pc, t, rp, sp, core[CORE/sizeof(uw_t)];
} forth_t;
 
static FILE *fopen_or_die(const char *file, const char *mode)
{
  FILE *f = NULL;
  errno = 0;
  assert(file && mode);
  if(!(f = fopen(file, mode))) {
    fprintf(stderr, "failed to open file '%s' (mode %s): %s\n",
                                            file, mode, strerror(errno));
    exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
  }
  return f;
}
 
static int binary_memory_load(FILE *input, uw_t *p, const size_t length)
{
  assert(input && p && length <= 0x8000);
  for(size_t i = 0; i < length; i++) {
    const int r1 = fgetc(input);
    const int r2 = fgetc(input);
    if(r1 < 0 || r2 < 0)
      return -1;
    p[i] = (((unsigned)r1 & 0xffu))|(((unsigned)r2 & 0xffu) << 8u);
  }
  return 0;
}
 
static int binary_memory_save(FILE *output, uw_t *p, const size_t start,
      const size_t length)
{
  assert(output && p /* && ((start + length) < 0x8000 || (start > length))*/);
  for(size_t i = start; i < length; i++) {
    errno = 0;
    const int r1 = fputc((p[i])       & 0xff, output);
    const int r2 = fputc((p[i] >> 8u) & 0xff, output);
    if(r1 < 0 || r2 < 0) {
      fprintf(stderr, "write failed: %s\n", strerror(errno));
      return -1;
    }
  }
  return 0;
}
 
int load(forth_t *h, const char *name)
{
  assert(h && name);
  FILE *input = fopen_or_die(name, "rb");
  const int r = binary_memory_load(input, h->core, CORE/sizeof(uw_t));
  fclose(input);
  h->pc = 0; h->t = 0; h->rp = RP0; h->sp = SP0;
  return r;
}
 
int save(forth_t *h, const char *name, size_t start, size_t length)
{
  assert(h);
  if(!name)
    return -1;
  FILE *output = fopen_or_die(name, "wb");
  const int r = binary_memory_save(output, h->core, start, length);
  fclose(output);
  return r;
}
 
int forth(forth_t *h, FILE *in, FILE *out, const char *block)
{
  static const uw_t delta[] = { 0x0000, 0x0001, 0xFFFE, 0xFFFF };
  assert(h && in && out);
  uw_t pc = h->pc, t = h->t, rp = h->rp, sp = h->sp, *m = h->core;
  ud_t d;
  for(;;) {
    const uw_t instruction = m[pc];
    TRACE(pc, instruction, sp, rp);
    assert(!(sp & 0x8000) && !(rp & 0x8000));
 
    if(0x8000 & instruction) { /* literal */
      m[++sp] = t;
      t       = instruction & 0x7FFF;
      pc++;
    } else if ((0xE000 & instruction) == 0x6000) { /* ALU */
      uw_t n = m[sp], T = t;
 
      pc = instruction & 0x10 ? m[rp] >> 1 : pc + 1;
 
      switch((instruction >> 8u) & 0x1f) {
      case  0: /*T = t;*/                break;
      case  1: T = n;                    break;
      case  2: T = m[rp];                break;
      case  3: T = m[t>>1];              break;
      case  4: m[t>>1] = n; T = m[--sp]; break;
      case  5: d = (ud_t)t + (ud_t)n; T = d >> 16; m[sp] = d; n = d; break;
      case  6: d = (ud_t)t * (ud_t)n; T = d >> 16; m[sp] = d; n = d; break;
      case  7: T &= n;                   break;
      case  8: T |= n;                   break;
      case  9: T ^= n;                   break;
      case 10: T = ~t;                   break;
      case 11: T--;                      break;
      case 12: T = -(t == 0);            break;
      case 13: T = -(t == n);            break;
      case 14: T = -(n < t);             break;
      case 15: T = -((sw_t)n < (sw_t)t); break;
      case 16: T = n >> t;               break;
      case 17: T = n << t;               break;
      case 18: T = sp << 1;              break;
      case 19: T = rp << 1;              break;
      case 20: sp = t >> 1;              break;
      case 21: rp = t >> 1; T = n;       break;
      case 22: T = save(h, block, n>>1, ((ud_t)T+1)>>1); break;
      case 23: T = fputc(t, out);        break;
      case 24: T = fgetc(in);            break;
      case 25: if(t) { T=n/t; t=n%t; n=t; }
               else { pc=1; T=10; n=T; t=n; } break;
      case 26: if(t) { T=(sw_t)n/(sw_t)t; t=(sw_t)n%(sw_t)t; n=t; }
               else { pc=1; T=10; n=T; t=n; } break;
      case 27: goto finished;
      }
      sp += delta[ instruction       & 0x3];
      rp -= delta[(instruction >> 2) & 0x3];
      if(instruction & 0x20)
        T = n;
      if(instruction & 0x40)
        m[rp] = t;
      if(instruction & 0x80)
        m[sp] = t;
      t = T;
    } else if (0x4000 & instruction) { /* call */
      m[--rp] = (pc + 1) << 1;
      pc = instruction & 0x1FFF;
    } else if (0x2000 & instruction) { /* 0branch */
      pc = !t ? instruction & 0x1FFF : pc + 1;
      t = m[sp--];
    } else { /* branch */
      pc = instruction & 0x1FFF;
    }
  }
finished:
  h->pc = pc; h->sp = sp; h->rp = rp; h->t = t;
  return (int16_t)t;
}
 
int main(int argc, char **argv)
{
  static forth_t h;
  int interactive = 0;
  if(argc < 4)
    goto fail;
  if(!strcmp(argv[1], "i"))
    interactive = 1;
  else if(strcmp(argv[1], "f"))
    goto fail;
  load(&h, argv[2]);
  for(int i = 4; i < argc; i++) {
    FILE *in = fopen_or_die(argv[i], "rb");
    const int r = forth(&h, in, stdout, argv[3]);
    fclose(in);
    if(r != 0) {
      fprintf(stderr, "run failed: %d\n", r);
      return r;
    }
  }
  if(interactive)
    return forth(&h, stdin, stdout, argv[3]);
  return 0;
fail:
  fprintf(stderr, "usage: %s f|i input.blk output.blk file.fth\n", argv[0]);
  return -1;
}
 
 
### References
 
[H2 CPU]: https://github.com/howerj/forth-cpu
[J1 CPU]: http://excamera.com/sphinx/fpga-j1.html
[forth.c]: forth.c
[compiler.c]: compiler.c
[eforth.fth]: eforth.fth
[C compiler]: https://gcc.gnu.org/
[make]: https://www.gnu.org/software/make/
[Windows]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows
[Linux]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux
[C99]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C99
[meta.fth]: meta.fth
[DOS]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS
[8086]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8086
[LZSS]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lempel%E2%80%93Ziv%E2%80%93Storer%E2%80%93Szymanski
[Run Length Encoding]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run-length_encoding
[Huffman]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huffman_coding
[Adaptive Huffman]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_Huffman_coding
Browse

Tools

Subversion Repositories forth-cpu

[/] [forth-cpu/] [trunk/] [meta.fth] - Blame information for rev 5
