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      ISO C++

      library

    This part deals with the functions called and objects created

    automatically during the course of a program's existence.

    While we can't reproduce the contents of the Standard here (you

    need to get your own copy from your nation's member body; see our

    homepage for help), we can mention a couple of changes in what

    kind of support a C++ program gets from the Standard Library.

      C++ has the following builtin types:

        char

        signed char

        unsigned char

        signed short

        signed int

        signed long

        unsigned short

        unsigned int

        unsigned long

        bool

        wchar_t

        float

        double

        long double

      These fundamental types are always available, without having to

      include a header file. These types are exactly the same in

      either C++ or in C.

      Specializing parts of the library on these types is prohibited:

      instead, use a POD.

    The header limits defines

    traits classes to give access to various implementation

    defined-aspects of the fundamental types. The traits classes --

    fourteen in total -- are all specializations of the template class

    numeric_limits, documented 

    url="http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/libstdc++/latest-doxygen/a00593.html">here

    and defined as follows:

   template<typename T>

     struct class

     {

       static const bool is_specialized;

       static T max() throw();

       static T min() throw();

       static const int digits;

       static const int digits10;

       static const bool is_signed;

       static const bool is_integer;

       static const bool is_exact;

       static const int radix;

       static T epsilon() throw();

       static T round_error() throw();

       static const int min_exponent;

       static const int min_exponent10;

       static const int max_exponent;

       static const int max_exponent10;

       static const bool has_infinity;

       static const bool has_quiet_NaN;

       static const bool has_signaling_NaN;

       static const float_denorm_style has_denorm;

       static const bool has_denorm_loss;

       static T infinity() throw();

       static T quiet_NaN() throw();

       static T denorm_min() throw();

       static const bool is_iec559;

       static const bool is_bounded;

       static const bool is_modulo;

       static const bool traps;

       static const bool tinyness_before;

       static const float_round_style round_style;

     };

     The only change that might affect people is the type of

     NULL: while it is required to be a macro,

     the definition of that macro is not allowed

     to be (void*)0, which is often used in C.

     For g++, NULL is

     #define'd to be

     __null, a magic keyword extension of

     g++.

     The biggest problem of #defining NULL to be

     something like 0L is that the compiler will view

     that as a long integer before it views it as a pointer, so

     overloading won't do what you expect. (This is why

     g++ has a magic extension, so that

     NULL is always a pointer.)

    In his book 

    url="http://www.awprofessional.com/titles/0-201-92488-9/">Effective

    C++, Scott Meyers points out that the best way

    to solve this problem is to not overload on pointer-vs-integer

    types to begin with.  He also offers a way to make your own magic

    NULL that will match pointers before it

    matches integers.

    See

      the

      Effective C++ CD example

    There are six flavors each of new and

    delete, so make certain that you're using the right

    ones. Here are quickie descriptions of new:

        single object form, throwing a

        bad_alloc on errors; this is what most

        people are used to using

        Single object "nothrow" form, returning NULL on errors

        Array new, throwing

        bad_alloc on errors

        Array nothrow new, returning

        NULL on errors

        Placement new, which does nothing (like

        it's supposed to)

        Placement array new, which also does

        nothing

     They are distinguished by the parameters that you pass to them, like

     any other overloaded function.  The six flavors of delete

     are distinguished the same way, but none of them are allowed to throw

     an exception under any circumstances anyhow.  (They match up for

     completeness' sake.)

     Remember that it is perfectly okay to call delete on a

     NULL pointer!  Nothing happens, by definition.  That is not the

     same thing as deleting a pointer twice.

     By default, if one of the throwing news can't

     allocate the memory requested, it tosses an instance of a

     bad_alloc exception (or, technically, some class derived

     from it).  You can change this by writing your own function (called a

     new-handler) and then registering it with set_new_handler():

   typedef void (*PFV)(void);

   static char*  safety;

   static PFV    old_handler;

   void my_new_handler ()

   {

       delete[] safety;

       popup_window ("Dude, you are running low on heap memory.  You

                      should, like, close some windows, or something.

                      The next time you run out, we're gonna burn!");

       set_new_handler (old_handler);

       return;

   }

   int main ()

   {

       safety = new char[500000];

       old_handler = set_new_handler (&my_new_handler);

       ...

   }

     bad_alloc is derived from the base exception

     class defined in Sect1 19.

      Not many changes here to 

      class="headerfile">cstdlib.  You should note that the

      abort() function does not call the

      destructors of automatic nor static objects, so if you're

      depending on those to do cleanup, it isn't going to happen.

      (The functions registered with atexit()

      don't get called either, so you can forget about that

      possibility, too.)

      The good old exit() function can be a bit

      funky, too, until you look closer.  Basically, three points to

      remember are:

        Static objects are destroyed in reverse order of their creation.

        Functions registered with atexit() are called in

        reverse order of registration, once per registration call.

        (This isn't actually new.)

        The previous two actions are interleaved, that is,

        given this pseudocode:

  extern "C or C++" void  f1 (void);

  extern "C or C++" void  f2 (void);

  static Thing obj1;

  atexit(f1);

  static Thing obj2;

  atexit(f2);

        then at a call of exit(),

        f2 will be called, then

        obj2 will be destroyed, then

        f1 will be called, and finally

        obj1 will be destroyed. If

        f1 or f2 allow an

        exception to propagate out of them, Bad Things happen.

      Note also that atexit() is only required to store 32

      functions, and the compiler/library might already be using some of

      those slots.  If you think you may run out, we recommend using

      the xatexit/xexit combination from libiberty, which has no such limit.

      If you are having difficulty with uncaught exceptions and want a

      little bit of help debugging the causes of the core dumps, you can

      make use of a GNU extension, the verbose terminate handler.

#include <exception>

int main()

{

  std::set_terminate(__gnu_cxx::__verbose_terminate_handler);

  ...

  throw anything;

}

     The __verbose_terminate_handler function

     obtains the name of the current exception, attempts to demangle

     it, and prints it to stderr.  If the exception is derived from

     exception then the output from

     what() will be included.

     Any replacement termination function is required to kill the

     program without returning; this one calls abort.

     For example:

#include <exception>

#include <stdexcept>

struct argument_error : public std::runtime_error

{

  argument_error(const std::string& s): std::runtime_error(s) { }

};

int main(int argc)

{

  std::set_terminate(__gnu_cxx::__verbose_terminate_handler);

  if (argc > 5)

    throw argument_error(argc is greater than 5!);

  else

    throw argc;

}

     With the verbose terminate handler active, this gives:

   % ./a.out

   terminate called after throwing a `int'

   Aborted

   % ./a.out f f f f f f f f f f f

   terminate called after throwing an instance of `argument_error'

   what(): argc is greater than 5!

   Aborted

     The 'Aborted' line comes from the call to

     abort(), of course.

     This is the default termination handler; nothing need be done to

     use it.  To go back to the previous silent death

     method, simply include exception and

     cstdlib, and call

     std::set_terminate(std::abort);

     After this, all calls to terminate will use

     abort as the terminate handler.

     Note: the verbose terminate handler will attempt to write to

     stderr.  If your application closes stderr or redirects it to an

     inappropriate location,

     __verbose_terminate_handler will behave in

     an unspecified manner.