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@c Copyright (C) 1988, 1989, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999,

@c 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

@c This is part of the GCC manual.

@c For copying conditions, see the file gcc.texi.

@node Passes

@chapter Passes and Files of the Compiler

@cindex passes and files of the compiler

@cindex files and passes of the compiler

@cindex compiler passes and files

This chapter is dedicated to giving an overview of the optimization and

code generation passes of the compiler.  In the process, it describes

some of the language front end interface, though this description is no

where near complete.

@menu

* Parsing pass::         The language front end turns text into bits.

* Gimplification pass::  The bits are turned into something we can optimize.

* Pass manager::         Sequencing the optimization passes.

* Tree-SSA passes::      Optimizations on a high-level representation.

* RTL passes::           Optimizations on a low-level representation.

@end menu

@node Parsing pass

@section Parsing pass

@cindex GENERIC

@findex lang_hooks.parse_file

The language front end is invoked only once, via

@code{lang_hooks.parse_file}, to parse the entire input.  The language

front end may use any intermediate language representation deemed

appropriate.  The C front end uses GENERIC trees (CROSSREF), plus

a double handful of language specific tree codes defined in

@file{c-common.def}.  The Fortran front end uses a completely different

private representation.

@cindex GIMPLE

@cindex gimplification

@cindex gimplifier

@cindex language-independent intermediate representation

@cindex intermediate representation lowering

@cindex lowering, language-dependent intermediate representation

At some point the front end must translate the representation used in the

front end to a representation understood by the language-independent

portions of the compiler.  Current practice takes one of two forms.

The C front end manually invokes the gimplifier (CROSSREF) on each function,

and uses the gimplifier callbacks to convert the language-specific tree

nodes directly to GIMPLE (CROSSREF) before passing the function off to

be compiled.

The Fortran front end converts from a private representation to GENERIC,

which is later lowered to GIMPLE when the function is compiled.  Which

route to choose probably depends on how well GENERIC (plus extensions)

can be made to match up with the source language and necessary parsing

data structures.

BUG: Gimplification must occur before nested function lowering,

and nested function lowering must be done by the front end before

passing the data off to cgraph.

TODO: Cgraph should control nested function lowering.  It would

only be invoked when it is certain that the outer-most function

is used.

TODO: Cgraph needs a gimplify_function callback.  It should be

invoked when (1) it is certain that the function is used, (2)

warning flags specified by the user require some amount of

compilation in order to honor, (3) the language indicates that

semantic analysis is not complete until gimplification occurs.

Hum@dots{} this sounds overly complicated.  Perhaps we should just

have the front end gimplify always; in most cases it's only one

function call.

The front end needs to pass all function definitions and top level

declarations off to the middle-end so that they can be compiled and

emitted to the object file.  For a simple procedural language, it is

usually most convenient to do this as each top level declaration or

definition is seen.  There is also a distinction to be made between

generating functional code and generating complete debug information.

The only thing that is absolutely required for functional code is that

function and data @emph{definitions} be passed to the middle-end.  For

complete debug information, function, data and type declarations

should all be passed as well.

@findex rest_of_decl_compilation

@findex rest_of_type_compilation

@findex cgraph_finalize_function

In any case, the front end needs each complete top-level function or

data declaration, and each data definition should be passed to

@code{rest_of_decl_compilation}.  Each complete type definition should

be passed to @code{rest_of_type_compilation}.  Each function definition

should be passed to @code{cgraph_finalize_function}.

TODO: I know rest_of_compilation currently has all sorts of

rtl-generation semantics.  I plan to move all code generation

bits (both tree and rtl) to compile_function.  Should we hide

cgraph from the front ends and move back to rest_of_compilation

as the official interface?  Possibly we should rename all three

interfaces such that the names match in some meaningful way and

that is more descriptive than "rest_of".

The middle-end will, at its option, emit the function and data

definitions immediately or queue them for later processing.

@node Gimplification pass

@section Gimplification pass

@cindex gimplification

@cindex GIMPLE

@dfn{Gimplification} is a whimsical term for the process of converting

the intermediate representation of a function into the GIMPLE language

(CROSSREF).  The term stuck, and so words like ``gimplification'',

``gimplify'', ``gimplifier'' and the like are sprinkled throughout this

section of code.

@cindex GENERIC

While a front end may certainly choose to generate GIMPLE directly if

it chooses, this can be a moderately complex process unless the

intermediate language used by the front end is already fairly simple.

Usually it is easier to generate GENERIC trees plus extensions

and let the language-independent gimplifier do most of the work.

@findex gimplify_function_tree

@findex gimplify_expr

@findex lang_hooks.gimplify_expr

The main entry point to this pass is @code{gimplify_function_tree}

located in @file{gimplify.c}.  From here we process the entire

function gimplifying each statement in turn.  The main workhorse

for this pass is @code{gimplify_expr}.  Approximately everything

passes through here at least once, and it is from here that we

invoke the @code{lang_hooks.gimplify_expr} callback.

The callback should examine the expression in question and return

@code{GS_UNHANDLED} if the expression is not a language specific

construct that requires attention.  Otherwise it should alter the

expression in some way to such that forward progress is made toward

producing valid GIMPLE@.  If the callback is certain that the

transformation is complete and the expression is valid GIMPLE, it

should return @code{GS_ALL_DONE}.  Otherwise it should return

@code{GS_OK}, which will cause the expression to be processed again.

If the callback encounters an error during the transformation (because

the front end is relying on the gimplification process to finish

semantic checks), it should return @code{GS_ERROR}.

@node Pass manager

@section Pass manager

The pass manager is located in @file{passes.c}, @file{tree-optimize.c}

and @file{tree-pass.h}.

Its job is to run all of the individual passes in the correct order,

and take care of standard bookkeeping that applies to every pass.

The theory of operation is that each pass defines a structure that

represents everything we need to know about that pass---when it

should be run, how it should be run, what intermediate language

form or on-the-side data structures it needs.  We register the pass

to be run in some particular order, and the pass manager arranges

for everything to happen in the correct order.

The actuality doesn't completely live up to the theory at present.

Command-line switches and @code{timevar_id_t} enumerations must still

be defined elsewhere.  The pass manager validates constraints but does

not attempt to (re-)generate data structures or lower intermediate

language form based on the requirements of the next pass.  Nevertheless,

what is present is useful, and a far sight better than nothing at all.

TODO: describe the global variables set up by the pass manager,

and a brief description of how a new pass should use it.

I need to look at what info rtl passes use first...

@node Tree-SSA passes

@section Tree-SSA passes

The following briefly describes the tree optimization passes that are

run after gimplification and what source files they are located in.

@itemize @bullet

@item Remove useless statements

This pass is an extremely simple sweep across the gimple code in which

we identify obviously dead code and remove it.  Here we do things like

simplify @code{if} statements with constant conditions, remove

exception handling constructs surrounding code that obviously cannot

throw, remove lexical bindings that contain no variables, and other

assorted simplistic cleanups.  The idea is to get rid of the obvious

stuff quickly rather than wait until later when it's more work to get

rid of it.  This pass is located in @file{tree-cfg.c} and described by

@code{pass_remove_useless_stmts}.

@item Mudflap declaration registration

If mudflap (@pxref{Optimize Options,,-fmudflap -fmudflapth

-fmudflapir,gcc,Using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)}) is

enabled, we generate code to register some variable declarations with

the mudflap runtime.  Specifically, the runtime tracks the lifetimes of

those variable declarations that have their addresses taken, or whose

bounds are unknown at compile time (@code{extern}).  This pass generates

new exception handling constructs (@code{try}/@code{finally}), and so

must run before those are lowered.  In addition, the pass enqueues

declarations of static variables whose lifetimes extend to the entire

program.  The pass is located in @file{tree-mudflap.c} and is described

by @code{pass_mudflap_1}.

@item OpenMP lowering

If OpenMP generation (@option{-fopenmp}) is enabled, this pass lowers

OpenMP constructs into GIMPLE.

Lowering of OpenMP constructs involves creating replacement

expressions for local variables that have been mapped using data

sharing clauses, exposing the control flow of most synchronization

directives and adding region markers to facilitate the creation of the

control flow graph.  The pass is located in @file{omp-low.c} and is

described by @code{pass_lower_omp}.

@item OpenMP expansion

If OpenMP generation (@option{-fopenmp}) is enabled, this pass expands

parallel regions into their own functions to be invoked by the thread

library.  The pass is located in @file{omp-low.c} and is described by

@code{pass_expand_omp}.

@item Lower control flow

This pass flattens @code{if} statements (@code{COND_EXPR})

and moves lexical bindings (@code{BIND_EXPR}) out of line.  After

this pass, all @code{if} statements will have exactly two @code{goto}

statements in its @code{then} and @code{else} arms.  Lexical binding

information for each statement will be found in @code{TREE_BLOCK} rather

than being inferred from its position under a @code{BIND_EXPR}.  This

pass is found in @file{gimple-low.c} and is described by

@code{pass_lower_cf}.

@item Lower exception handling control flow

This pass decomposes high-level exception handling constructs

(@code{TRY_FINALLY_EXPR} and @code{TRY_CATCH_EXPR}) into a form

that explicitly represents the control flow involved.  After this

pass, @code{lookup_stmt_eh_region} will return a non-negative

number for any statement that may have EH control flow semantics;

examine @code{tree_can_throw_internal} or @code{tree_can_throw_external}

for exact semantics.  Exact control flow may be extracted from

@code{foreach_reachable_handler}.  The EH region nesting tree is defined

in @file{except.h} and built in @file{except.c}.  The lowering pass

itself is in @file{tree-eh.c} and is described by @code{pass_lower_eh}.

@item Build the control flow graph

This pass decomposes a function into basic blocks and creates all of

the edges that connect them.  It is located in @file{tree-cfg.c} and

is described by @code{pass_build_cfg}.

@item Find all referenced variables

This pass walks the entire function and collects an array of all

variables referenced in the function, @code{referenced_vars}.  The

index at which a variable is found in the array is used as a UID

for the variable within this function.  This data is needed by the

SSA rewriting routines.  The pass is located in @file{tree-dfa.c}

and is described by @code{pass_referenced_vars}.

@item Enter static single assignment form

This pass rewrites the function such that it is in SSA form.  After

this pass, all @code{is_gimple_reg} variables will be referenced by

@code{SSA_NAME}, and all occurrences of other variables will be

annotated with @code{VDEFS} and @code{VUSES}; PHI nodes will have

been inserted as necessary for each basic block.  This pass is

located in @file{tree-ssa.c} and is described by @code{pass_build_ssa}.

@item Warn for uninitialized variables

This pass scans the function for uses of @code{SSA_NAME}s that

are fed by default definition.  For non-parameter variables, such

uses are uninitialized.  The pass is run twice, before and after

optimization.  In the first pass we only warn for uses that are

positively uninitialized; in the second pass we warn for uses that

are possibly uninitialized.  The pass is located in @file{tree-ssa.c}

and is defined by @code{pass_early_warn_uninitialized} and

@code{pass_late_warn_uninitialized}.

@item Dead code elimination

This pass scans the function for statements without side effects whose

result is unused.  It does not do memory life analysis, so any value

that is stored in memory is considered used.  The pass is run multiple

times throughout the optimization process.  It is located in

@file{tree-ssa-dce.c} and is described by @code{pass_dce}.

@item Dominator optimizations

This pass performs trivial dominator-based copy and constant propagation,

expression simplification, and jump threading.  It is run multiple times

throughout the optimization process.  It it located in @file{tree-ssa-dom.c}

and is described by @code{pass_dominator}.

@item Redundant PHI elimination

This pass removes PHI nodes for which all of the arguments are the same

value, excluding feedback.  Such degenerate forms are typically created

by removing unreachable code.  The pass is run multiple times throughout

the optimization process.  It is located in @file{tree-ssa.c} and is

described by @code{pass_redundant_phi}.o

@item Forward propagation of single-use variables

This pass attempts to remove redundant computation by substituting

variables that are used once into the expression that uses them and

seeing if the result can be simplified.  It is located in

@file{tree-ssa-forwprop.c} and is described by @code{pass_forwprop}.

@item Copy Renaming

This pass attempts to change the name of compiler temporaries involved in

copy operations such that SSA->normal can coalesce the copy away.  When compiler

temporaries are copies of user variables, it also renames the compiler

temporary to the user variable resulting in better use of user symbols.  It is

located in @file{tree-ssa-copyrename.c} and is described by

@code{pass_copyrename}.

@item PHI node optimizations

This pass recognizes forms of PHI inputs that can be represented as

conditional expressions and rewrites them into straight line code.

It is located in @file{tree-ssa-phiopt.c} and is described by

@code{pass_phiopt}.

@item May-alias optimization

This pass performs a flow sensitive SSA-based points-to analysis.

The resulting may-alias, must-alias, and escape analysis information

is used to promote variables from in-memory addressable objects to

non-aliased variables that can be renamed into SSA form.  We also

update the @code{VDEF}/@code{VUSE} memory tags for non-renameable

aggregates so that we get fewer false kills.  The pass is located

in @file{tree-ssa-alias.c} and is described by @code{pass_may_alias}.

Interprocedural points-to information is located in

@file{tree-ssa-structalias.c} and described by @code{pass_ipa_pta}.

@item Profiling

This pass rewrites the function in order to collect runtime block

and value profiling data.  Such data may be fed back into the compiler

on a subsequent run so as to allow optimization based on expected

execution frequencies.  The pass is located in @file{predict.c} and

is described by @code{pass_profile}.

@item Lower complex arithmetic

This pass rewrites complex arithmetic operations into their component

scalar arithmetic operations.  The pass is located in @file{tree-complex.c}

and is described by @code{pass_lower_complex}.

@item Scalar replacement of aggregates

This pass rewrites suitable non-aliased local aggregate variables into

a set of scalar variables.  The resulting scalar variables are

rewritten into SSA form, which allows subsequent optimization passes

to do a significantly better job with them.  The pass is located in

@file{tree-sra.c} and is described by @code{pass_sra}.

@item Dead store elimination

This pass eliminates stores to memory that are subsequently overwritten

by another store, without any intervening loads.  The pass is located

in @file{tree-ssa-dse.c} and is described by @code{pass_dse}.

@item Tail recursion elimination

This pass transforms tail recursion into a loop.  It is located in

@file{tree-tailcall.c} and is described by @code{pass_tail_recursion}.

@item Forward store motion

This pass sinks stores and assignments down the flowgraph closer to it's

use point.  The pass is located in @file{tree-ssa-sink.c} and is

described by @code{pass_sink_code}.

@item Partial redundancy elimination

This pass eliminates partially redundant computations, as well as

performing load motion.  The pass is located in @file{tree-ssa-pre.c}

and is described by @code{pass_pre}.

Just before partial redundancy elimination, if

@option{-funsafe-math-optimizations} is on, GCC tries to convert

divisions to multiplications by the reciprocal.  The pass is located

in @file{tree-ssa-math-opts.c} and is described by

@code{pass_cse_reciprocal}.

@item Full redundancy elimination

This is a simpler form of PRE that only eliminate redundancies that

occur an all paths.  It is located in @file{tree-ssa-pre.c} and

described by @code{pass_fre}.

@item Loop optimization

The main driver of the pass is placed in @file{tree-ssa-loop.c}

and described by @code{pass_loop}.

The optimizations performed by this pass are:

Loop invariant motion.  This pass moves only invariants that

would be hard to handle on rtl level (function calls, operations that expand to

nontrivial sequences of insns).  With @option{-funswitch-loops} it also moves

operands of conditions that are invariant out of the loop, so that we can use

just trivial invariantness analysis in loop unswitching.  The pass also includes

store motion.  The pass is implemented in @file{tree-ssa-loop-im.c}.

Canonical induction variable creation.  This pass creates a simple counter

for number of iterations of the loop and replaces the exit condition of the

loop using it, in case when a complicated analysis is necessary to determine

the number of iterations.  Later optimizations then may determine the number

easily.  The pass is implemented in @file{tree-ssa-loop-ivcanon.c}.

Induction variable optimizations.  This pass performs standard induction

variable optimizations, including strength reduction, induction variable

merging and induction variable elimination.  The pass is implemented in

@file{tree-ssa-loop-ivopts.c}.

Loop unswitching.  This pass moves the conditional jumps that are invariant

out of the loops.  To achieve this, a duplicate of the loop is created for

each possible outcome of conditional jump(s).  The pass is implemented in

@file{tree-ssa-loop-unswitch.c}.  This pass should eventually replace the

rtl-level loop unswitching in @file{loop-unswitch.c}, but currently

the rtl-level pass is not completely redundant yet due to deficiencies

in tree level alias analysis.

The optimizations also use various utility functions contained in

@file{tree-ssa-loop-manip.c}, @file{cfgloop.c}, @file{cfgloopanal.c} and

@file{cfgloopmanip.c}.

Vectorization.  This pass transforms loops to operate on vector types

instead of scalar types.  Data parallelism across loop iterations is exploited

to group data elements from consecutive iterations into a vector and operate

on them in parallel.  Depending on available target support the loop is

conceptually unrolled by a factor @code{VF} (vectorization factor), which is

the number of elements operated upon in parallel in each iteration, and the

@code{VF} copies of each scalar operation are fused to form a vector operation.

Additional loop transformations such as peeling and versioning may take place

to align the number of iterations, and to align the memory accesses in the loop.

The pass is implemented in @file{tree-vectorizer.c} (the main driver and general

utilities), @file{tree-vect-analyze.c} and @file{tree-vect-transform.c}.

Analysis of data references is in @file{tree-data-ref.c}.

@item Tree level if-conversion for vectorizer

This pass applies if-conversion to simple loops to help vectorizer.

We identify if convertible loops, if-convert statements and merge

basic blocks in one big block.  The idea is to present loop in such

form so that vectorizer can have one to one mapping between statements

and available vector operations.  This patch re-introduces COND_EXPR

at GIMPLE level.  This pass is located in @file{tree-if-conv.c} and is

described by @code{pass_if_conversion}.

@item Conditional constant propagation

This pass relaxes a lattice of values in order to identify those

that must be constant even in the presence of conditional branches.

The pass is located in @file{tree-ssa-ccp.c} and is described

by @code{pass_ccp}.

A related pass that works on memory loads and stores, and not just

register values, is located in @file{tree-ssa-ccp.c} and described by

@code{pass_store_ccp}.

@item Conditional copy propagation

This is similar to constant propagation but the lattice of values is

the ``copy-of'' relation.  It eliminates redundant copies from the

code.  The pass is located in @file{tree-ssa-copy.c} and described by

@code{pass_copy_prop}.

A related pass that works on memory copies, and not just register

copies, is located in @file{tree-ssa-copy.c} and described by

@code{pass_store_copy_prop}.

@item Value range propagation

This transformation is similar to constant propagation but

instead of propagating single constant values, it propagates

known value ranges.  The implementation is based on Patterson's

range propagation algorithm (Accurate Static Branch Prediction by

Value Range Propagation, J. R. C. Patterson, PLDI '95).  In

contrast to Patterson's algorithm, this implementation does not

propagate branch probabilities nor it uses more than a single

range per SSA name. This means that the current implementation

cannot be used for branch prediction (though adapting it would

not be difficult).  The pass is located in @file{tree-vrp.c} and is

described by @code{pass_vrp}.

@item Folding built-in functions

This pass simplifies built-in functions, as applicable, with constant

arguments or with inferrable string lengths.  It is located in

@file{tree-ssa-ccp.c} and is described by @code{pass_fold_builtins}.

@item Split critical edges

This pass identifies critical edges and inserts empty basic blocks

such that the edge is no longer critical.  The pass is located in

@file{tree-cfg.c} and is described by @code{pass_split_crit_edges}.

@item Control dependence dead code elimination

This pass is a stronger form of dead code elimination that can

eliminate unnecessary control flow statements.   It is located

in @file{tree-ssa-dce.c} and is described by @code{pass_cd_dce}.

@item Tail call elimination

This pass identifies function calls that may be rewritten into

jumps.  No code transformation is actually applied here, but the

data and control flow problem is solved.  The code transformation

requires target support, and so is delayed until RTL@.  In the

meantime @code{CALL_EXPR_TAILCALL} is set indicating the possibility.

The pass is located in @file{tree-tailcall.c} and is described by

@code{pass_tail_calls}.  The RTL transformation is handled by

@code{fixup_tail_calls} in @file{calls.c}.

@item Warn for function return without value

For non-void functions, this pass locates return statements that do

not specify a value and issues a warning.  Such a statement may have

been injected by falling off the end of the function.  This pass is

run last so that we have as much time as possible to prove that the

statement is not reachable.  It is located in @file{tree-cfg.c} and

is described by @code{pass_warn_function_return}.

@item Mudflap statement annotation

If mudflap is enabled, we rewrite some memory accesses with code to

validate that the memory access is correct.  In particular, expressions

involving pointer dereferences (@code{INDIRECT_REF}, @code{ARRAY_REF},

etc.) are replaced by code that checks the selected address range

against the mudflap runtime's database of valid regions.  This check

includes an inline lookup into a direct-mapped cache, based on

shift/mask operations of the pointer value, with a fallback function

call into the runtime.  The pass is located in @file{tree-mudflap.c} and

is described by @code{pass_mudflap_2}.

@item Leave static single assignment form

This pass rewrites the function such that it is in normal form.  At

the same time, we eliminate as many single-use temporaries as possible,

so the intermediate language is no longer GIMPLE, but GENERIC@.  The

pass is located in @file{tree-outof-ssa.c} and is described by

@code{pass_del_ssa}.

@item Merge PHI nodes that feed into one another

This is part of the CFG cleanup passes.  It attempts to join PHI nodes

from a forwarder CFG block into another block with PHI nodes.  The

pass is located in @file{tree-cfgcleanup.c} and is described by

@code{pass_merge_phi}.

@item Return value optimization

If a function always returns the same local variable, and that local

variable is an aggregate type, then the variable is replaced with the

return value for the function (i.e., the function's DECL_RESULT).  This

is equivalent to the C++ named return value optimization applied to

GIMPLE.  The pass is located in @file{tree-nrv.c} and is described by

@code{pass_nrv}.

@item Return slot optimization

If a function returns a memory object and is called as @code{var =

foo()}, this pass tries to change the call so that the address of

@code{var} is sent to the caller to avoid an extra memory copy.  This

pass is located in @code{tree-nrv.c} and is described by

@code{pass_return_slot}.

@item Optimize calls to @code{__builtin_object_size}

This is a propagation pass similar to CCP that tries to remove calls

to @code{__builtin_object_size} when the size of the object can be

computed at compile-time.  This pass is located in

@file{tree-object-size.c} and is described by

@code{pass_object_sizes}.

@item Loop invariant motion

This pass removes expensive loop-invariant computations out of loops.

The pass is located in @file{tree-ssa-loop.c} and described by

@code{pass_lim}.

@item Loop nest optimizations

This is a family of loop transformations that works on loop nests.  It

includes loop interchange, scaling, skewing and reversal and they are

all geared to the optimization of data locality in array traversals

and the removal of dependencies that hamper optimizations such as loop

parallelization and vectorization.  The pass is located in

@file{tree-loop-linear.c} and described by

@code{pass_linear_transform}.

@item Removal of empty loops

This pass removes loops with no code in them.  The pass is located in

@file{tree-ssa-loop-ivcanon.c} and described by

@code{pass_empty_loop}.

@item Unrolling of small loops

This pass completely unrolls loops with few iterations.  The pass

is located in @file{tree-ssa-loop-ivcanon.c} and described by

@code{pass_complete_unroll}.

@item Array prefetching

This pass issues prefetch instructions for array references inside

loops.  The pass is located in @file{tree-ssa-loop-prefetch.c} and

described by @code{pass_loop_prefetch}.

@item Reassociation

This pass rewrites arithmetic expressions to enable optimizations that

operate on them, like redundancy elimination and vectorization.  The

pass is located in @file{tree-ssa-reassoc.c} and described by

@code{pass_reassoc}.

@item Optimization of @code{stdarg} functions

This pass tries to avoid the saving of register arguments into the

stack on entry to @code{stdarg} functions.  If the function doesn't

use any @code{va_start} macros, no registers need to be saved.  If

@code{va_start} macros are used, the @code{va_list} variables don't

escape the function, it is only necessary to save registers that will

be used in @code{va_arg} macros.  For instance, if @code{va_arg} is

only used with integral types in the function, floating point

registers don't need to be saved.  This pass is located in

@code{tree-stdarg.c} and described by @code{pass_stdarg}.

@end itemize

@node RTL passes

@section RTL passes

The following briefly describes the rtl generation and optimization

passes that are run after tree optimization.

@itemize @bullet

@item RTL generation

@c Avoiding overfull is tricky here.

The source files for RTL generation include

@file{stmt.c},

@file{calls.c},

@file{expr.c},

@file{explow.c},

@file{expmed.c},

@file{function.c},

@file{optabs.c}

and @file{emit-rtl.c}.

Also, the file

@file{insn-emit.c}, generated from the machine description by the

program @code{genemit}, is used in this pass.  The header file

@file{expr.h} is used for communication within this pass.

@findex genflags

@findex gencodes

The header files @file{insn-flags.h} and @file{insn-codes.h},

generated from the machine description by the programs @code{genflags}

and @code{gencodes}, tell this pass which standard names are available

for use and which patterns correspond to them.

@item Generate exception handling landing pads

This pass generates the glue that handles communication between the

exception handling library routines and the exception handlers within

the function.  Entry points in the function that are invoked by the

exception handling library are called @dfn{landing pads}.  The code

for this pass is located within @file{except.c}.

@item Cleanup control flow graph

This pass removes unreachable code, simplifies jumps to next, jumps to

jump, jumps across jumps, etc.  The pass is run multiple times.

For historical reasons, it is occasionally referred to as the ``jump

optimization pass''.  The bulk of the code for this pass is in

@file{cfgcleanup.c}, and there are support routines in @file{cfgrtl.c}

and @file{jump.c}.

@item Common subexpression elimination

This pass removes redundant computation within basic blocks, and

optimizes addressing modes based on cost.  The pass is run twice.

The source is located in @file{cse.c}.

@item Global common subexpression elimination.

This pass performs two

different types of GCSE  depending on whether you are optimizing for

size or not (LCM based GCSE tends to increase code size for a gain in

speed, while Morel-Renvoise based GCSE does not).

When optimizing for size, GCSE is done using Morel-Renvoise Partial

Redundancy Elimination, with the exception that it does not try to move

invariants out of loops---that is left to  the loop optimization pass.

If MR PRE GCSE is done, code hoisting (aka unification) is also done, as

well as load motion.

If you are optimizing for speed, LCM (lazy code motion) based GCSE is

done.  LCM is based on the work of Knoop, Ruthing, and Steffen.  LCM

based GCSE also does loop invariant code motion.  We also perform load

and store motion when optimizing for speed.

Regardless of which type of GCSE is used, the GCSE pass also performs

global constant and  copy propagation.

The source file for this pass is @file{gcse.c}, and the LCM routines

are in @file{lcm.c}.

@item Loop optimization

This pass performs several loop related optimizations.

The source files @file{cfgloopanal.c} and @file{cfgloopmanip.c} contain

generic loop analysis and manipulation code.  Initialization and finalization

of loop structures is handled by @file{loop-init.c}.

A loop invariant motion pass is implemented in @file{loop-invariant.c}.

Basic block level optimizations---unrolling, peeling and unswitching loops---

are implemented in @file{loop-unswitch.c} and @file{loop-unroll.c}.

Replacing of the exit condition of loops by special machine-dependent

instructions is handled by @file{loop-doloop.c}.

@item Jump bypassing

This pass is an aggressive form of GCSE that transforms the control

flow graph of a function by propagating constants into conditional

branch instructions.  The source file for this pass is @file{gcse.c}.

@item If conversion

This pass attempts to replace conditional branches and surrounding

assignments with arithmetic, boolean value producing comparison

instructions, and conditional move instructions.  In the very last

invocation after reload, it will generate predicated instructions

when supported by the target.  The pass is located in @file{ifcvt.c}.

@item Web construction

This pass splits independent uses of each pseudo-register.  This can

improve effect of the other transformation, such as CSE or register

allocation.  Its source files are @file{web.c}.

@item Life analysis

This pass computes which pseudo-registers are live at each point in

the program, and makes the first instruction that uses a value point

at the instruction that computed the value.  It then deletes

computations whose results are never used, and combines memory

references with add or subtract instructions to make autoincrement or

autodecrement addressing.  The pass is located in @file{flow.c}.

@item Instruction combination

This pass attempts to combine groups of two or three instructions that

are related by data flow into single instructions.  It combines the

RTL expressions for the instructions by substitution, simplifies the

result using algebra, and then attempts to match the result against

the machine description.  The pass is located in @file{combine.c}.

@item Register movement

This pass looks for cases where matching constraints would force an

instruction to need a reload, and this reload would be a

register-to-register move.  It then attempts to change the registers

used by the instruction to avoid the move instruction.

The pass is located in @file{regmove.c}.

@item Optimize mode switching

This pass looks for instructions that require the processor to be in a

specific ``mode'' and minimizes the number of mode changes required to

satisfy all users.  What these modes are, and what they apply to are

completely target-specific.

The source is located in @file{mode-switching.c}.

@cindex modulo scheduling

@cindex sms, swing, software pipelining

@item Modulo scheduling

This pass looks at innermost loops and reorders their instructions

by overlapping different iterations.  Modulo scheduling is performed

immediately before instruction scheduling.

The pass is located in (@file{modulo-sched.c}).

@item Instruction scheduling

This pass looks for instructions whose output will not be available by

the time that it is used in subsequent instructions.  Memory loads and

floating point instructions often have this behavior on RISC machines.

It re-orders instructions within a basic block to try to separate the

definition and use of items that otherwise would cause pipeline

stalls.  This pass is performed twice, before and after register

allocation.  The pass is located in @file{haifa-sched.c},

@file{sched-deps.c}, @file{sched-ebb.c}, @file{sched-rgn.c} and

@file{sched-vis.c}.

@item Register allocation

These passes make sure that all occurrences of pseudo registers are

eliminated, either by allocating them to a hard register, replacing

them by an equivalent expression (e.g.@: a constant) or by placing

them on the stack.  This is done in several subpasses:

@itemize @bullet

@item

Register class preferencing.  The RTL code is scanned to find out

which register class is best for each pseudo register.  The source

file is @file{regclass.c}.

@item

Local register allocation.  This pass allocates hard registers to

pseudo registers that are used only within one basic block.  Because

the basic block is linear, it can use fast and powerful techniques to

do a decent job.  The source is located in @file{local-alloc.c}.

@item

Global register allocation.  This pass allocates hard registers for

the remaining pseudo registers (those whose life spans are not

contained in one basic block).  The pass is located in @file{global.c}.

@cindex reloading

@item

Reloading.  This pass renumbers pseudo registers with the hardware

registers numbers they were allocated.  Pseudo registers that did not

get hard registers are replaced with stack slots.  Then it finds

instructions that are invalid because a value has failed to end up in

a register, or has ended up in a register of the wrong kind.  It fixes

up these instructions by reloading the problematical values

temporarily into registers.  Additional instructions are generated to

do the copying.

The reload pass also optionally eliminates the frame pointer and inserts

instructions to save and restore call-clobbered registers around calls.

Source files are @file{reload.c} and @file{reload1.c}, plus the header

@file{reload.h} used for communication between them.

@end itemize

@item Basic block reordering

This pass implements profile guided code positioning.  If profile

information is not available, various types of static analysis are

performed to make the predictions normally coming from the profile

feedback (IE execution frequency, branch probability, etc).  It is

implemented in the file @file{bb-reorder.c}, and the various

prediction routines are in @file{predict.c}.

@item Variable tracking

This pass computes where the variables are stored at each

position in code and generates notes describing the variable locations

to RTL code.  The location lists are then generated according to these

notes to debug information if the debugging information format supports

location lists.

@item Delayed branch scheduling

This optional pass attempts to find instructions that can go into the

delay slots of other instructions, usually jumps and calls.  The

source file name is @file{reorg.c}.

@item Branch shortening

On many RISC machines, branch instructions have a limited range.

Thus, longer sequences of instructions must be used for long branches.

In this pass, the compiler figures out what how far each instruction

will be from each other instruction, and therefore whether the usual

instructions, or the longer sequences, must be used for each branch.

@item Register-to-stack conversion

Conversion from usage of some hard registers to usage of a register

stack may be done at this point.  Currently, this is supported only

for the floating-point registers of the Intel 80387 coprocessor.   The

source file name is @file{reg-stack.c}.

@item Final

This pass outputs the assembler code for the function.  The source files

are @file{final.c} plus @file{insn-output.c}; the latter is generated

automatically from the machine description by the tool @file{genoutput}.

The header file @file{conditions.h} is used for communication between

these files.  If mudflap is enabled, the queue of deferred declarations

and any addressed constants (e.g., string literals) is processed by

@code{mudflap_finish_file} into a synthetic constructor function

containing calls into the mudflap runtime.

@item Debugging information output

This is run after final because it must output the stack slot offsets

for pseudo registers that did not get hard registers.  Source files

are @file{dbxout.c} for DBX symbol table format, @file{sdbout.c} for

SDB symbol table format, @file{dwarfout.c} for DWARF symbol table

format, files @file{dwarf2out.c} and @file{dwarf2asm.c} for DWARF2

symbol table format, and @file{vmsdbgout.c} for VMS debug symbol table

format.

@end itemize