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<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /><title>Chapter 11. Memory</title><meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.75.2" /><meta name="keywords" content=" ISO C++ , library " /><link rel="home" href="../spine.html" title="The GNU C++ Library Documentation" /><link rel="up" href="utilities.html" title="Part IV. Utilities" /><link rel="prev" href="pairs.html" title="Chapter 10. Pairs" /><link rel="next" href="auto_ptr.html" title="auto_ptr" /></head><body><div class="navheader"><table width="100%" summary="Navigation header"><tr><th colspan="3" align="center">Chapter 11. Memory</th></tr><tr><td width="20%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="pairs.html">Prev</a> </td><th width="60%" align="center">Part IV.
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Utilities
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</th><td width="20%" align="right"> <a accesskey="n" href="auto_ptr.html">Next</a></td></tr></table><hr /></div><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 11. Memory"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a id="manual.util.memory"></a>Chapter 11. Memory</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>Table of Contents</b></p><dl><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="memory.html#manual.util.memory.allocator">Allocators</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="memory.html#allocator.req">Requirements</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="memory.html#allocator.design_issues">Design Issues</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="memory.html#allocator.impl">Implementation</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="memory.html#allocator.using">Using a Specific Allocator</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="memory.html#allocator.custom">Custom Allocators</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="memory.html#allocator.ext">Extension Allocators</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="auto_ptr.html">auto_ptr</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="auto_ptr.html#auto_ptr.limitations">Limitations</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="auto_ptr.html#auto_ptr.using">Use in Containers</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="shared_ptr.html">shared_ptr</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="shared_ptr.html#shared_ptr.req">Requirements</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="shared_ptr.html#shared_ptr.design_issues">Design Issues</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="shared_ptr.html#shared_ptr.impl">Implementation</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="shared_ptr.html#shared_ptr.using">Use</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect2"><a href="shared_ptr.html#shared_ptr.ack">Acknowledgments</a></span></dt></dl></dd></dl></div><p>
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Memory contains three general areas. First, function and operator
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calls via <code class="function">new</code> and <code class="function">delete</code>
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operator or member function calls. Second, allocation via
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<code class="classname">allocator</code>. And finally, smart pointer and
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intelligent pointer abstractions.
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</p><div class="sect1" title="Allocators"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a id="manual.util.memory.allocator"></a>Allocators</h2></div></div></div><p>
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Memory management for Standard Library entities is encapsulated in a
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class template called <code class="classname">allocator</code>. The
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<code class="classname">allocator</code> abstraction is used throughout the
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library in <code class="classname">string</code>, container classes,
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algorithms, and parts of iostreams. This class, and base classes of
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it, are the superset of available free store (<span class="quote">“<span class="quote">heap</span>”</span>)
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management classes.
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</p><div class="sect2" title="Requirements"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a id="allocator.req"></a>Requirements</h3></div></div></div><p>
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The C++ standard only gives a few directives in this area:
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</p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" type="disc"><li class="listitem"><p>
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When you add elements to a container, and the container must
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allocate more memory to hold them, the container makes the
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request via its <span class="type">Allocator</span> template
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parameter, which is usually aliased to
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<span class="type">allocator_type</span>. This includes adding chars
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to the string class, which acts as a regular STL container in
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this respect.
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</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
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The default <span class="type">Allocator</span> argument of every
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container-of-T is <code class="classname">allocator<T></code>.
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</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
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The interface of the <code class="classname">allocator<T></code> class is
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extremely simple. It has about 20 public declarations (nested
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typedefs, member functions, etc), but the two which concern us most
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are:
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</p><pre class="programlisting">
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T* allocate (size_type n, const void* hint = 0);
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void deallocate (T* p, size_type n);
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</pre><p>
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The <code class="varname">n</code> arguments in both those
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functions is a <span class="emphasis"><em>count</em></span> of the number of
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<span class="type">T</span>'s to allocate space for, <span class="emphasis"><em>not their
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total size</em></span>.
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(This is a simplification; the real signatures use nested typedefs.)
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</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
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The storage is obtained by calling <code class="function">::operator
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new</code>, but it is unspecified when or how
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often this function is called. The use of the
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<code class="varname">hint</code> is unspecified, but intended as an
|
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aid to locality if an implementation so
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desires. <code class="constant">[20.4.1.1]/6</code>
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</p></li></ul></div><p>
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Complete details can be found in the C++ standard, look in
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<code class="constant">[20.4 Memory]</code>.
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</p></div><div class="sect2" title="Design Issues"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a id="allocator.design_issues"></a>Design Issues</h3></div></div></div><p>
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The easiest way of fulfilling the requirements is to call
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<code class="function">operator new</code> each time a container needs
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memory, and to call <code class="function">operator delete</code> each time
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the container releases memory. This method may be <a class="ulink" href="http://gcc.gnu.org/ml/libstdc++/2001-05/msg00105.html" target="_top">slower</a>
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than caching the allocations and re-using previously-allocated
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memory, but has the advantage of working correctly across a wide
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variety of hardware and operating systems, including large
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clusters. The <code class="classname">__gnu_cxx::new_allocator</code>
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implements the simple operator new and operator delete semantics,
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while <code class="classname">__gnu_cxx::malloc_allocator</code>
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implements much the same thing, only with the C language functions
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<code class="function">std::malloc</code> and <code class="function">free</code>.
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</p><p>
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Another approach is to use intelligence within the allocator
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class to cache allocations. This extra machinery can take a variety
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of forms: a bitmap index, an index into an exponentially increasing
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power-of-two-sized buckets, or simpler fixed-size pooling cache.
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The cache is shared among all the containers in the program: when
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your program's <code class="classname">std::vector<int></code> gets
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cut in half and frees a bunch of its storage, that memory can be
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reused by the private
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<code class="classname">std::list<WonkyWidget></code> brought in from
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a KDE library that you linked against. And operators
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<code class="function">new</code> and <code class="function">delete</code> are not
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always called to pass the memory on, either, which is a speed
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bonus. Examples of allocators that use these techniques are
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<code class="classname">__gnu_cxx::bitmap_allocator</code>,
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<code class="classname">__gnu_cxx::pool_allocator</code>, and
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<code class="classname">__gnu_cxx::__mt_alloc</code>.
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</p><p>
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Depending on the implementation techniques used, the underlying
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operating system, and compilation environment, scaling caching
|
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allocators can be tricky. In particular, order-of-destruction and
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order-of-creation for memory pools may be difficult to pin down
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with certainty, which may create problems when used with plugins
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or loading and unloading shared objects in memory. As such, using
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caching allocators on systems that do not support
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<code class="function">abi::__cxa_atexit</code> is not recommended.
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</p></div><div class="sect2" title="Implementation"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a id="allocator.impl"></a>Implementation</h3></div></div></div><div class="sect3" title="Interface Design"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title"><a id="id630442"></a>Interface Design</h4></div></div></div><p>
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The only allocator interface that
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is supported is the standard C++ interface. As such, all STL
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containers have been adjusted, and all external allocators have
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been modified to support this change.
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</p><p>
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The class <code class="classname">allocator</code> just has typedef,
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constructor, and rebind members. It inherits from one of the
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high-speed extension allocators, covered below. Thus, all
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allocation and deallocation depends on the base class.
|
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</p><p>
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The base class that <code class="classname">allocator</code> is derived from
|
| 108 |
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may not be user-configurable.
|
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</p></div><div class="sect3" title="Selecting Default Allocation Policy"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title"><a id="id637894"></a>Selecting Default Allocation Policy</h4></div></div></div><p>
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It's difficult to pick an allocation strategy that will provide
|
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maximum utility, without excessively penalizing some behavior. In
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fact, it's difficult just deciding which typical actions to measure
|
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for speed.
|
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</p><p>
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Three synthetic benchmarks have been created that provide data
|
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that is used to compare different C++ allocators. These tests are:
|
| 117 |
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|
</p><div class="orderedlist"><ol class="orderedlist" type="1"><li class="listitem"><p>
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Insertion.
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</p><p>
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| 120 |
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|
Over multiple iterations, various STL container
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objects have elements inserted to some maximum amount. A variety
|
| 122 |
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of allocators are tested.
|
| 123 |
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|
Test source for <a class="ulink" href="http://gcc.gnu.org/viewcvs/trunk/libstdc%2B%2B-v3/testsuite/performance/23_containers/insert/sequence.cc?view=markup" target="_top">sequence</a>
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| 124 |
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and <a class="ulink" href="http://gcc.gnu.org/viewcvs/trunk/libstdc%2B%2B-v3/testsuite/performance/23_containers/insert/associative.cc?view=markup" target="_top">associative</a>
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| 125 |
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containers.
|
| 126 |
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</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
|
| 127 |
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Insertion and erasure in a multi-threaded environment.
|
| 128 |
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</p><p>
|
| 129 |
|
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This test shows the ability of the allocator to reclaim memory
|
| 130 |
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on a per-thread basis, as well as measuring thread contention
|
| 131 |
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for memory resources.
|
| 132 |
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Test source
|
| 133 |
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<a class="ulink" href="http://gcc.gnu.org/viewcvs/trunk/libstdc%2B%2B-v3/testsuite/performance/23_containers/insert_erase/associative.cc?view=markup" target="_top">here</a>.
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</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
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A threaded producer/consumer model.
|
| 136 |
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</p><p>
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| 137 |
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Test source for
|
| 138 |
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<a class="ulink" href="http://gcc.gnu.org/viewcvs/trunk/libstdc++-v3/testsuite/performance/23_containers/producer_consumer/sequence.cc?view=markup" target="_top">sequence</a>
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| 139 |
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and
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| 140 |
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<a class="ulink" href="http://gcc.gnu.org/viewcvs/trunk/libstdc++-v3/testsuite/performance/23_containers/producer_consumer/associative.cc?view=markup" target="_top">associative</a>
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| 141 |
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containers.
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| 142 |
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</p></li></ol></div><p>
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| 143 |
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The current default choice for
|
| 144 |
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<code class="classname">allocator</code> is
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| 145 |
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<code class="classname">__gnu_cxx::new_allocator</code>.
|
| 146 |
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</p></div><div class="sect3" title="Disabling Memory Caching"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title"><a id="id629596"></a>Disabling Memory Caching</h4></div></div></div><p>
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In use, <code class="classname">allocator</code> may allocate and
|
| 148 |
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deallocate using implementation-specified strategies and
|
| 149 |
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heuristics. Because of this, every call to an allocator object's
|
| 150 |
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<code class="function">allocate</code> member function may not actually
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call the global operator new. This situation is also duplicated
|
| 152 |
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for calls to the <code class="function">deallocate</code> member
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function.
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</p><p>
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This can be confusing.
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</p><p>
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In particular, this can make debugging memory errors more
|
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difficult, especially when using third party tools like valgrind or
|
| 159 |
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debug versions of <code class="function">new</code>.
|
| 160 |
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</p><p>
|
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There are various ways to solve this problem. One would be to use
|
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a custom allocator that just called operators
|
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<code class="function">new</code> and <code class="function">delete</code>
|
| 164 |
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directly, for every allocation. (See
|
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<code class="filename">include/ext/new_allocator.h</code>, for instance.)
|
| 166 |
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However, that option would involve changing source code to use
|
| 167 |
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a non-default allocator. Another option is to force the
|
| 168 |
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default allocator to remove caching and pools, and to directly
|
| 169 |
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allocate with every call of <code class="function">allocate</code> and
|
| 170 |
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directly deallocate with every call of
|
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<code class="function">deallocate</code>, regardless of efficiency. As it
|
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turns out, this last option is also available.
|
| 173 |
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</p><p>
|
| 174 |
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To globally disable memory caching within the library for the
|
| 175 |
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default allocator, merely set
|
| 176 |
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<code class="constant">GLIBCXX_FORCE_NEW</code> (with any value) in the
|
| 177 |
|
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system's environment before running the program. If your program
|
| 178 |
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crashes with <code class="constant">GLIBCXX_FORCE_NEW</code> in the
|
| 179 |
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environment, it likely means that you linked against objects
|
| 180 |
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built against the older library (objects which might still using the
|
| 181 |
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cached allocations...).
|
| 182 |
|
|
</p></div></div><div class="sect2" title="Using a Specific Allocator"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a id="allocator.using"></a>Using a Specific Allocator</h3></div></div></div><p>
|
| 183 |
|
|
You can specify different memory management schemes on a
|
| 184 |
|
|
per-container basis, by overriding the default
|
| 185 |
|
|
<span class="type">Allocator</span> template parameter. For example, an easy
|
| 186 |
|
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(but non-portable) method of specifying that only <code class="function">malloc</code> or <code class="function">free</code>
|
| 187 |
|
|
should be used instead of the default node allocator is:
|
| 188 |
|
|
</p><pre class="programlisting">
|
| 189 |
|
|
std::list <int, __gnu_cxx::malloc_allocator<int> > malloc_list;</pre><p>
|
| 190 |
|
|
Likewise, a debugging form of whichever allocator is currently in use:
|
| 191 |
|
|
</p><pre class="programlisting">
|
| 192 |
|
|
std::deque <int, __gnu_cxx::debug_allocator<std::allocator<int> > > debug_deque;
|
| 193 |
|
|
</pre></div><div class="sect2" title="Custom Allocators"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a id="allocator.custom"></a>Custom Allocators</h3></div></div></div><p>
|
| 194 |
|
|
Writing a portable C++ allocator would dictate that the interface
|
| 195 |
|
|
would look much like the one specified for
|
| 196 |
|
|
<code class="classname">allocator</code>. Additional member functions, but
|
| 197 |
|
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not subtractions, would be permissible.
|
| 198 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 199 |
|
|
Probably the best place to start would be to copy one of the
|
| 200 |
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extension allocators: say a simple one like
|
| 201 |
|
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<code class="classname">new_allocator</code>.
|
| 202 |
|
|
</p></div><div class="sect2" title="Extension Allocators"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a id="allocator.ext"></a>Extension Allocators</h3></div></div></div><p>
|
| 203 |
|
|
Several other allocators are provided as part of this
|
| 204 |
|
|
implementation. The location of the extension allocators and their
|
| 205 |
|
|
names have changed, but in all cases, functionality is
|
| 206 |
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equivalent. Starting with gcc-3.4, all extension allocators are
|
| 207 |
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standard style. Before this point, SGI style was the norm. Because of
|
| 208 |
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this, the number of template arguments also changed. Here's a simple
|
| 209 |
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|
chart to track the changes.
|
| 210 |
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</p><p>
|
| 211 |
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|
More details on each of these extension allocators follows.
|
| 212 |
|
|
</p><div class="orderedlist"><ol class="orderedlist" type="1"><li class="listitem"><p>
|
| 213 |
|
|
<code class="classname">new_allocator</code>
|
| 214 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 215 |
|
|
Simply wraps <code class="function">::operator new</code>
|
| 216 |
|
|
and <code class="function">::operator delete</code>.
|
| 217 |
|
|
</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
|
| 218 |
|
|
<code class="classname">malloc_allocator</code>
|
| 219 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 220 |
|
|
Simply wraps <code class="function">malloc</code> and
|
| 221 |
|
|
<code class="function">free</code>. There is also a hook for an
|
| 222 |
|
|
out-of-memory handler (for
|
| 223 |
|
|
<code class="function">new</code>/<code class="function">delete</code> this is
|
| 224 |
|
|
taken care of elsewhere).
|
| 225 |
|
|
</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
|
| 226 |
|
|
<code class="classname">array_allocator</code>
|
| 227 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 228 |
|
|
Allows allocations of known and fixed sizes using existing
|
| 229 |
|
|
global or external storage allocated via construction of
|
| 230 |
|
|
<code class="classname">std::tr1::array</code> objects. By using this
|
| 231 |
|
|
allocator, fixed size containers (including
|
| 232 |
|
|
<code class="classname">std::string</code>) can be used without
|
| 233 |
|
|
instances calling <code class="function">::operator new</code> and
|
| 234 |
|
|
<code class="function">::operator delete</code>. This capability
|
| 235 |
|
|
allows the use of STL abstractions without runtime
|
| 236 |
|
|
complications or overhead, even in situations such as program
|
| 237 |
|
|
startup. For usage examples, please consult the testsuite.
|
| 238 |
|
|
</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
|
| 239 |
|
|
<code class="classname">debug_allocator</code>
|
| 240 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 241 |
|
|
A wrapper around an arbitrary allocator A. It passes on
|
| 242 |
|
|
slightly increased size requests to A, and uses the extra
|
| 243 |
|
|
memory to store size information. When a pointer is passed
|
| 244 |
|
|
to <code class="function">deallocate()</code>, the stored size is
|
| 245 |
|
|
checked, and <code class="function">assert()</code> is used to
|
| 246 |
|
|
guarantee they match.
|
| 247 |
|
|
</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
|
| 248 |
|
|
<code class="classname">throw_allocator</code>
|
| 249 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 250 |
|
|
Includes memory tracking and marking abilities as well as hooks for
|
| 251 |
|
|
throwing exceptions at configurable intervals (including random,
|
| 252 |
|
|
all, none).
|
| 253 |
|
|
</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
|
| 254 |
|
|
<code class="classname">__pool_alloc</code>
|
| 255 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 256 |
|
|
A high-performance, single pool allocator. The reusable
|
| 257 |
|
|
memory is shared among identical instantiations of this type.
|
| 258 |
|
|
It calls through <code class="function">::operator new</code> to
|
| 259 |
|
|
obtain new memory when its lists run out. If a client
|
| 260 |
|
|
container requests a block larger than a certain threshold
|
| 261 |
|
|
size, then the pool is bypassed, and the allocate/deallocate
|
| 262 |
|
|
request is passed to <code class="function">::operator new</code>
|
| 263 |
|
|
directly.
|
| 264 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 265 |
|
|
Older versions of this class take a boolean template
|
| 266 |
|
|
parameter, called <code class="varname">thr</code>, and an integer template
|
| 267 |
|
|
parameter, called <code class="varname">inst</code>.
|
| 268 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 269 |
|
|
The <code class="varname">inst</code> number is used to track additional memory
|
| 270 |
|
|
pools. The point of the number is to allow multiple
|
| 271 |
|
|
instantiations of the classes without changing the semantics at
|
| 272 |
|
|
all. All three of
|
| 273 |
|
|
</p><pre class="programlisting">
|
| 274 |
|
|
typedef __pool_alloc<true,0> normal;
|
| 275 |
|
|
typedef __pool_alloc<true,1> private;
|
| 276 |
|
|
typedef __pool_alloc<true,42> also_private;
|
| 277 |
|
|
</pre><p>
|
| 278 |
|
|
behave exactly the same way. However, the memory pool for each type
|
| 279 |
|
|
(and remember that different instantiations result in different types)
|
| 280 |
|
|
remains separate.
|
| 281 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 282 |
|
|
The library uses <span class="emphasis"><em>0</em></span> in all its instantiations. If you
|
| 283 |
|
|
wish to keep separate free lists for a particular purpose, use a
|
| 284 |
|
|
different number.
|
| 285 |
|
|
</p><p>The <code class="varname">thr</code> boolean determines whether the
|
| 286 |
|
|
pool should be manipulated atomically or not. When
|
| 287 |
|
|
<code class="varname">thr</code> = <code class="constant">true</code>, the allocator
|
| 288 |
|
|
is thread-safe, while <code class="varname">thr</code> =
|
| 289 |
|
|
<code class="constant">false</code>, is slightly faster but unsafe for
|
| 290 |
|
|
multiple threads.
|
| 291 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 292 |
|
|
For thread-enabled configurations, the pool is locked with a
|
| 293 |
|
|
single big lock. In some situations, this implementation detail
|
| 294 |
|
|
may result in severe performance degradation.
|
| 295 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 296 |
|
|
(Note that the GCC thread abstraction layer allows us to provide
|
| 297 |
|
|
safe zero-overhead stubs for the threading routines, if threads
|
| 298 |
|
|
were disabled at configuration time.)
|
| 299 |
|
|
</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
|
| 300 |
|
|
<code class="classname">__mt_alloc</code>
|
| 301 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 302 |
|
|
A high-performance fixed-size allocator with
|
| 303 |
|
|
exponentially-increasing allocations. It has its own
|
| 304 |
|
|
documentation, found <a class="link" href="ext_allocators.html#manual.ext.allocator.mt" title="mt_allocator">here</a>.
|
| 305 |
|
|
</p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
|
| 306 |
|
|
<code class="classname">bitmap_allocator</code>
|
| 307 |
|
|
</p><p>
|
| 308 |
|
|
A high-performance allocator that uses a bit-map to keep track
|
| 309 |
|
|
of the used and unused memory locations. It has its own
|
| 310 |
|
|
documentation, found <a class="link" href="bitmap_allocator.html" title="bitmap_allocator">here</a>.
|
| 311 |
|
|
</p></li></ol></div></div><div class="bibliography" title="Bibliography"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a id="allocator.biblio"></a>Bibliography</h3></div></div></div><div class="biblioentry" title="ISO/IEC 14882:1998 Programming languages - C++"><a id="id616986"></a><p><span class="title"><i>
|
| 312 |
|
|
ISO/IEC 14882:1998 Programming languages - C++
|
| 313 |
|
|
</i>. </span>
|
| 314 |
|
|
isoc++_1998
|
| 315 |
|
|
<span class="pagenums">20.4 Memory. </span></p></div><div class="biblioentry" title="The Standard Librarian: What Are Allocators Good"><a id="id617001"></a><p><span class="title"><i>The Standard Librarian: What Are Allocators Good
|
| 316 |
|
|
</i>. </span>
|
| 317 |
|
|
austernm
|
| 318 |
|
|
<span class="author"><span class="firstname">Matt</span> <span class="surname">Austern</span>. </span><span class="publisher"><span class="publishername">
|
| 319 |
|
|
C/C++ Users Journal
|
| 320 |
|
|
. </span></span><span class="biblioid">
|
| 321 |
|
|
<a class="ulink" href="http://www.cuj.com/documents/s=8000/cujcexp1812austern/" target="_top">
|
| 322 |
|
|
</a>
|
| 323 |
|
|
. </span></p></div><div class="biblioentry" title="The Hoard Memory Allocator"><a id="id658988"></a><p><span class="title"><i>The Hoard Memory Allocator</i>. </span>
|
| 324 |
|
|
emeryb
|
| 325 |
|
|
<span class="author"><span class="firstname">Emery</span> <span class="surname">Berger</span>. </span><span class="biblioid">
|
| 326 |
|
|
<a class="ulink" href="http://www.cs.umass.edu/~emery/hoard/" target="_top">
|
| 327 |
|
|
</a>
|
| 328 |
|
|
. </span></p></div><div class="biblioentry" title="Reconsidering Custom Memory Allocation"><a id="id620190"></a><p><span class="title"><i>Reconsidering Custom Memory Allocation</i>. </span>
|
| 329 |
|
|
bergerzorn
|
| 330 |
|
|
<span class="author"><span class="firstname">Emery</span> <span class="surname">Berger</span>. </span><span class="author"><span class="firstname">Ben</span> <span class="surname">Zorn</span>. </span><span class="author"><span class="firstname">Kathryn</span> <span class="surname">McKinley</span>. </span><span class="copyright">Copyright © 2002 OOPSLA. </span><span class="biblioid">
|
| 331 |
|
|
<a class="ulink" href="http://www.cs.umass.edu/~emery/pubs/berger-oopsla2002.pdf" target="_top">
|
| 332 |
|
|
</a>
|
| 333 |
|
|
. </span></p></div><div class="biblioentry" title="Allocator Types"><a id="id598997"></a><p><span class="title"><i>Allocator Types</i>. </span>
|
| 334 |
|
|
kreftlanger
|
| 335 |
|
|
<span class="author"><span class="firstname">Klaus</span> <span class="surname">Kreft</span>. </span><span class="author"><span class="firstname">Angelika</span> <span class="surname">Langer</span>. </span><span class="publisher"><span class="publishername">
|
| 336 |
|
|
C/C++ Users Journal
|
| 337 |
|
|
. </span></span><span class="biblioid">
|
| 338 |
|
|
<a class="ulink" href="http://www.angelikalanger.com/Articles/C++Report/Allocators/Allocators.html" target="_top">
|
| 339 |
|
|
</a>
|
| 340 |
|
|
. </span></p></div><div class="biblioentry" title="The C++ Programming Language"><a id="id683391"></a><p><span class="title"><i>The C++ Programming Language</i>. </span>
|
| 341 |
|
|
tcpl
|
| 342 |
|
|
<span class="author"><span class="firstname">Bjarne</span> <span class="surname">Stroustrup</span>. </span><span class="copyright">Copyright © 2000 . </span><span class="pagenums">19.4 Allocators. </span><span class="publisher"><span class="publishername">
|
| 343 |
|
|
Addison Wesley
|
| 344 |
|
|
. </span></span></p></div><div class="biblioentry" title="Yalloc: A Recycling C++ Allocator"><a id="id704594"></a><p><span class="title"><i>Yalloc: A Recycling C++ Allocator</i>. </span>
|
| 345 |
|
|
yenf
|
| 346 |
|
|
<span class="author"><span class="firstname">Felix</span> <span class="surname">Yen</span>. </span><span class="copyright">Copyright © . </span></p></div></div></div></div><div class="navfooter"><hr /><table width="100%" summary="Navigation footer"><tr><td width="40%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="pairs.html">Prev</a> </td><td width="20%" align="center"><a accesskey="u" href="utilities.html">Up</a></td><td width="40%" align="right"> <a accesskey="n" href="auto_ptr.html">Next</a></td></tr><tr><td width="40%" align="left" valign="top">Chapter 10. Pairs </td><td width="20%" align="center"><a accesskey="h" href="../spine.html">Home</a></td><td width="40%" align="right" valign="top"> auto_ptr</td></tr></table></div></body></html>
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