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>eCos Reference Manual</TH
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><HR
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ALIGN="LEFT"
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WIDTH="100%"></DIV
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><H1
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><A
82 
NAME="KERNEL-MUTEXES">Mutexes</H1
83 
><DIV
84 
CLASS="REFNAMEDIV"
85 
><A
86 
NAME="AEN1098"
87 
></A
88 
><H2
89 
>Name</H2
90 
>cyg_mutex_init, cyg_mutex_destroy, cyg_mutex_lock, cyg_mutex_trylock, cyg_mutex_unlock, cyg_mutex_release, cyg_mutex_set_ceiling, cyg_mutex_set_protocol&nbsp;--&nbsp;Synchronization primitive</DIV
91 
><DIV
92 
CLASS="REFSYNOPSISDIV"
93 
><A
94 
NAME="AEN1108"><H2
95 
>Synopsis</H2
96 
><DIV
97 
CLASS="FUNCSYNOPSIS"
98 
><A
99 
NAME="AEN1109"><P
100 
></P
101 
><TABLE
102 
BORDER="5"
103 
BGCOLOR="#E0E0F0"
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WIDTH="70%"
105 
><TR
106 
><TD
107 
><PRE
108 
CLASS="FUNCSYNOPSISINFO"
109 
>#include &lt;cyg/kernel/kapi.h&gt;
110 
        </PRE
111 
></TD
112 
></TR
113 
></TABLE
114 
><P
115 
><CODE
116 
><CODE
117 
CLASS="FUNCDEF"
118 
>void cyg_mutex_init</CODE
119 
>(cyg_mutex_t* mutex);</CODE
120 
></P
121 
><P
122 
><CODE
123 
><CODE
124 
CLASS="FUNCDEF"
125 
>void cyg_mutex_destroy</CODE
126 
>(cyg_mutex_t* mutex);</CODE
127 
></P
128 
><P
129 
><CODE
130 
><CODE
131 
CLASS="FUNCDEF"
132 
>cyg_bool_t cyg_mutex_lock</CODE
133 
>(cyg_mutex_t* mutex);</CODE
134 
></P
135 
><P
136 
><CODE
137 
><CODE
138 
CLASS="FUNCDEF"
139 
>cyg_bool_t cyg_mutex_trylock</CODE
140 
>(cyg_mutex_t* mutex);</CODE
141 
></P
142 
><P
143 
><CODE
144 
><CODE
145 
CLASS="FUNCDEF"
146 
>void cyg_mutex_unlock</CODE
147 
>(cyg_mutex_t* mutex);</CODE
148 
></P
149 
><P
150 
><CODE
151 
><CODE
152 
CLASS="FUNCDEF"
153 
>void cyg_mutex_release</CODE
154 
>(cyg_mutex_t* mutex);</CODE
155 
></P
156 
><P
157 
><CODE
158 
><CODE
159 
CLASS="FUNCDEF"
160 
>void cyg_mutex_set_ceiling</CODE
161 
>(cyg_mutex_t* mutex, cyg_priority_t priority);</CODE
162 
></P
163 
><P
164 
><CODE
165 
><CODE
166 
CLASS="FUNCDEF"
167 
>void cyg_mutex_set_protocol</CODE
168 
>(cyg_mutex_t* mutex, enum cyg_mutex_protocol protocol/);</CODE
169 
></P
170 
><P
171 
></P
172 
></DIV
173 
></DIV
174 
><DIV
175 
CLASS="REFSECT1"
176 
><A
177 
NAME="KERNEL-MUTEXES-DESCRIPTION"
178 
></A
179 
><H2
180 
>Description</H2
181 
><P
182 
>The purpose of mutexes is to let threads share resources safely. If
183 
two or more threads attempt to manipulate a data structure with no
184 
locking between them then the system may run for quite some time
185 
without apparent problems, but sooner or later the data structure will
186 
become inconsistent and the application will start behaving strangely
187 
and is quite likely to crash. The same can apply even when
188 
manipulating a single variable or some other resource. For example,
189 
consider:
190 
      </P
191 
><TABLE
192 
BORDER="5"
193 
BGCOLOR="#E0E0F0"
194 
WIDTH="70%"
195 
><TR
196 
><TD
197 
><PRE
198 
CLASS="PROGRAMLISTING"
199 
>static volatile int counter = 0;
200 
 
201 
void
202 
process_event(void)
203 
{
204 
    &#8230;
205 
 
206 
    counter++;
207 
}</PRE
208 
></TD
209 
></TR
210 
></TABLE
211 
><P
212 
>Assume that after a certain period of time <TT
213 
CLASS="VARNAME"
214 
>counter</TT
215 
>
216 
has a value of 42, and two threads A and B running at the same
217 
priority call <TT
218 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
219 
>process_event</TT
220 
>. Typically thread A
221 
will read the value of <TT
222 
CLASS="VARNAME"
223 
>counter</TT
224 
> into a register,
225 
increment this register to 43, and write this updated value back to
226 
memory. Thread B will do the same, so usually
227 
<TT
228 
CLASS="VARNAME"
229 
>counter</TT
230 
> will end up with a value of 44. However if
231 
thread A is timesliced after reading the old value 42 but before
232 
writing back 43, thread B will still read back the old value and will
233 
also write back 43. The net result is that the counter only gets
234 
incremented once, not twice, which depending on the application may
235 
prove disastrous.
236 
      </P
237 
><P
238 
>Sections of code like the above which involve manipulating shared data
239 
are generally known as critical regions. Code should claim a lock
240 
before entering a critical region and release the lock when leaving.
241 
Mutexes provide an appropriate synchronization primitive for this.
242 
      </P
243 
><TABLE
244 
BORDER="5"
245 
BGCOLOR="#E0E0F0"
246 
WIDTH="70%"
247 
><TR
248 
><TD
249 
><PRE
250 
CLASS="PROGRAMLISTING"
251 
>static volatile int counter = 0;
252 
static cyg_mutex_t  lock;
253 
 
254 
void
255 
process_event(void)
256 
{
257 
    &#8230;
258 
 
259 
    cyg_mutex_lock(&amp;lock);
260 
    counter++;
261 
    cyg_mutex_unlock(&amp;lock);
262 
}
263 
      </PRE
264 
></TD
265 
></TR
266 
></TABLE
267 
><P
268 
>A mutex must be initialized before it can be used, by calling
269 
<TT
270 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
271 
>cyg_mutex_init</TT
272 
>. This takes a pointer to a
273 
<SPAN
274 
CLASS="STRUCTNAME"
275 
>cyg_mutex_t</SPAN
276 
> data structure which is typically
277 
statically allocated, and may be part of a larger data structure. If a
278 
mutex is no longer required and there are no threads waiting on it
279 
then <TT
280 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
281 
>cyg_mutex_destroy</TT
282 
> can be used.
283 
      </P
284 
><P
285 
>The main functions for using a mutex are
286 
<TT
287 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
288 
>cyg_mutex_lock</TT
289 
> and
290 
<TT
291 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
292 
>cyg_mutex_unlock</TT
293 
>. In normal operation
294 
<TT
295 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
296 
>cyg_mutex_lock</TT
297 
> will return success after claiming
298 
the mutex lock, blocking if another thread currently owns the mutex.
299 
However the lock operation may fail if other code calls
300 
<TT
301 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
302 
>cyg_mutex_release</TT
303 
> or
304 
<TT
305 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
306 
>cyg_thread_release</TT
307 
>, so if these functions may get
308 
used then it is important to check the return value. The current owner
309 
of a mutex should call <TT
310 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
311 
>cyg_mutex_unlock</TT
312 
> when a
313 
lock is no longer required. This operation must be performed by the
314 
owner, not by another thread.
315 
      </P
316 
><P
317 
><TT
318 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
319 
>cyg_mutex_trylock</TT
320 
> is a variant of
321 
<TT
322 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
323 
>cyg_mutex_lock</TT
324 
> that will always return
325 
immediately, returning success or failure as appropriate. This
326 
function is rarely useful. Typical code locks a mutex just before
327 
entering a critical region, so if the lock cannot be claimed then
328 
there may be nothing else for the current thread to do. Use of this
329 
function may also cause a form of priority inversion if the owner
330 
owner runs at a lower priority, because the priority inheritance code
331 
will not be triggered. Instead the current thread continues running,
332 
preventing the owner from getting any cpu time, completing the
333 
critical region, and releasing the mutex.
334 
      </P
335 
><P
336 
><TT
337 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
338 
>cyg_mutex_release</TT
339 
> can be used to wake up all
340 
threads that are currently blocked inside a call to
341 
<TT
342 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
343 
>cyg_mutex_lock</TT
344 
> for a specific mutex. These lock
345 
calls will return failure. The current mutex owner is not affected.
346 
      </P
347 
></DIV
348 
><DIV
349 
CLASS="REFSECT1"
350 
><A
351 
NAME="KERNEL-MUTEXES-PRIORITY-INVERSION"
352 
></A
353 
><H2
354 
>Priority Inversion</H2
355 
><P
356 
>The use of mutexes gives rise to a problem known as priority
357 
inversion. In a typical scenario this requires three threads A, B, and
358 
C, running at high, medium and low priority respectively. Thread A and
359 
thread B are temporarily blocked waiting for some event, so thread C
360 
gets a chance to run, needs to enter a critical region, and locks
361 
a mutex. At this point threads A and B are woken up - the exact order
362 
does not matter. Thread A needs to claim the same mutex but has to
363 
wait until C has left the critical region and can release the mutex.
364 
Meanwhile thread B works on something completely different and can
365 
continue running without problems. Because thread C is running a lower
366 
priority than B it will not get a chance to run until B blocks for
367 
some reason, and hence thread A cannot run either. The overall effect
368 
is that a high-priority thread A cannot proceed because of a lower
369 
priority thread B, and priority inversion has occurred.
370 
      </P
371 
><P
372 
>In simple applications it may be possible to arrange the code such
373 
that priority inversion cannot occur, for example by ensuring that a
374 
given mutex is never shared by threads running at different priority
375 
levels. However this may not always be possible even at the
376 
application level. In addition mutexes may be used internally by
377 
underlying code, for example the memory allocation package, so careful
378 
analysis of the whole system would be needed to be sure that priority
379 
inversion cannot occur. Instead it is common practice to use one of
380 
two techniques: priority ceilings and priority inheritance.
381 
      </P
382 
><P
383 
>Priority ceilings involve associating a priority with each mutex.
384 
Usually this will match the highest priority thread that will ever
385 
lock the mutex. When a thread running at a lower priority makes a
386 
successful call to <TT
387 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
388 
>cyg_mutex_lock</TT
389 
> or
390 
<TT
391 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
392 
>cyg_mutex_trylock</TT
393 
> its priority will be boosted to
394 
that of the mutex. For example, given the previous example the
395 
priority associated with the mutex would be that of thread A, so for
396 
as long as it owns the mutex thread C will run in preference to thread
397 
B. When C releases the mutex its priority drops to the normal value
398 
again, allowing A to run and claim the mutex. Setting the
399 
priority for a mutex involves a call to
400 
<TT
401 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
402 
>cyg_mutex_set_ceiling</TT
403 
>, which is typically called
404 
during initialization. It is possible to change the ceiling
405 
dynamically but this will only affect subsequent lock operations, not
406 
the current owner of the mutex.
407 
      </P
408 
><P
409 
>Priority ceilings are very suitable for simple applications, where for
410 
every thread in the system it is possible to work out which mutexes
411 
will be accessed. For more complicated applications this may prove
412 
difficult, especially if thread priorities change at run-time. An
413 
additional problem occurs for any mutexes outside the application, for
414 
example used internally within eCos packages. A typical eCos package
415 
will be unaware of the details of the various threads in the system,
416 
so it will have no way of setting suitable ceilings for its internal
417 
mutexes. If those mutexes are not exported to application code then
418 
using priority ceilings may not be viable. The kernel does provide a
419 
configuration option
420 
<TT
421 
CLASS="VARNAME"
422 
>CYGSEM_KERNEL_SYNCH_MUTEX_PRIORITY_INVERSION_PROTOCOL_DEFAULT_PRIORITY</TT
423 
>
424 
that can be used to set the default priority ceiling for all mutexes,
425 
which may prove sufficient.
426 
      </P
427 
><P
428 
>The alternative approach is to use priority inheritance: if a thread
429 
calls <TT
430 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
431 
>cyg_mutex_lock</TT
432 
> for a mutex that it
433 
currently owned by a lower-priority thread, then the owner will have
434 
its priority raised to that of the current thread. Often this is more
435 
efficient than priority ceilings because priority boosting only
436 
happens when necessary, not for every lock operation, and the required
437 
priority is determined at run-time rather than by static analysis.
438 
However there are complications when multiple threads running at
439 
different priorities try to lock a single mutex, or when the current
440 
owner of a mutex then tries to lock additional mutexes, and this makes
441 
the implementation significantly more complicated than priority
442 
ceilings.
443 
      </P
444 
><P
445 
>There are a number of configuration options associated with priority
446 
inversion. First, if after careful analysis it is known that priority
447 
inversion cannot arise then the component
448 
<TT
449 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
450 
>CYGSEM_KERNEL_SYNCH_MUTEX_PRIORITY_INVERSION_PROTOCOL</TT
451 
>
452 
can be disabled. More commonly this component will be enabled, and one
453 
of either
454 
<TT
455 
CLASS="VARNAME"
456 
>CYGSEM_KERNEL_SYNCH_MUTEX_PRIORITY_INVERSION_PROTOCOL_INHERIT</TT
457 
>
458 
or
459 
<TT
460 
CLASS="VARNAME"
461 
>CYGSEM_KERNEL_SYNCH_MUTEX_PRIORITY_INVERSION_PROTOCOL_CEILING</TT
462 
>
463 
will be selected, so that one of the two protocols is available for
464 
all mutexes. It is possible to select multiple protocols, so that some
465 
mutexes can have priority ceilings while others use priority
466 
inheritance or no priority inversion protection at all. Obviously this
467 
flexibility will add to the code size and to the cost of mutex
468 
operations. The default for all mutexes will be controlled by
469 
<TT
470 
CLASS="VARNAME"
471 
>CYGSEM_KERNEL_SYNCH_MUTEX_PRIORITY_INVERSION_PROTOCOL_DEFAULT</TT
472 
>,
473 
and can be changed at run-time using
474 
<TT
475 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
476 
>cyg_mutex_set_protocol</TT
477 
>.
478 
      </P
479 
><P
480 
>Priority inversion problems can also occur with other synchronization
481 
primitives such as semaphores. For example there could be a situation
482 
where a high-priority thread A is waiting on a semaphore, a
483 
low-priority thread C needs to do just a little bit more work before
484 
posting the semaphore, but a medium priority thread B is running and
485 
preventing C from making progress. However a semaphore does not have
486 
the concept of an owner, so there is no way for the system to know
487 
that it is thread C which would next post to the semaphore. Hence
488 
there is no way for the system to boost the priority of C
489 
automatically and prevent the priority inversion. Instead situations
490 
like this have to be detected by application developers and
491 
appropriate precautions have to be taken, for example making sure that
492 
all the threads run at suitable priorities at all times.
493 
      </P
494 
><DIV
495 
CLASS="WARNING"
496 
><P
497 
></P
498 
><TABLE
499 
CLASS="WARNING"
500 
BORDER="1"
501 
WIDTH="100%"
502 
><TR
503 
><TD
504 
ALIGN="CENTER"
505 
><B
506 
>Warning</B
507 
></TD
508 
></TR
509 
><TR
510 
><TD
511 
ALIGN="LEFT"
512 
><P
513 
>The current implementation of priority inheritance within the eCos
514 
kernel does not handle certain exceptional circumstances completely
515 
correctly. Problems will only arise if a thread owns one mutex,
516 
then attempts to claim another mutex, and there are other threads
517 
attempting to lock these same mutexes. Although the system will
518 
continue running, the current owners of the various mutexes involved
519 
may not run at the priority they should. This situation never arises
520 
in typical code because a mutex will only be locked for a small
521 
critical region, and there is no need to manipulate other shared resources
522 
inside this region. A more complicated implementation of priority
523 
inheritance is possible but would add significant overhead and certain
524 
operations would no longer be deterministic.
525 
      </P
526 
></TD
527 
></TR
528 
></TABLE
529 
></DIV
530 
><DIV
531 
CLASS="WARNING"
532 
><P
533 
></P
534 
><TABLE
535 
CLASS="WARNING"
536 
BORDER="1"
537 
WIDTH="100%"
538 
><TR
539 
><TD
540 
ALIGN="CENTER"
541 
><B
542 
>Warning</B
543 
></TD
544 
></TR
545 
><TR
546 
><TD
547 
ALIGN="LEFT"
548 
><P
549 
>Support for priority ceilings and priority inheritance is not
550 
implemented for all schedulers. In particular neither priority
551 
ceilings nor priority inheritance are currently available for the
552 
bitmap scheduler.
553 
      </P
554 
></TD
555 
></TR
556 
></TABLE
557 
></DIV
558 
></DIV
559 
><DIV
560 
CLASS="REFSECT1"
561 
><A
562 
NAME="KERNEL-MUTEXES-ALTERNATIVES"
563 
></A
564 
><H2
565 
>Alternatives</H2
566 
><P
567 
>In nearly all circumstances, if two or more threads need to share some
568 
data then protecting this data with a mutex is the correct thing to
569 
do. Mutexes are the only primitive that combine a locking mechanism
570 
and protection against priority inversion problems. However this
571 
functionality is achieved at a cost, and in exceptional circumstances
572 
such as an application's most critical inner loop it may be desirable
573 
to use some other means of locking.
574 
      </P
575 
><P
576 
>When a critical region is very very small it is possible to lock the
577 
scheduler, thus ensuring that no other thread can run until the
578 
scheduler is unlocked again. This is achieved with calls to <A
579 
HREF="kernel-schedcontrol.html"
580 
><TT
581 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
582 
>cyg_scheduler_lock</TT
583 
></A
584 
>
585 
and <TT
586 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
587 
>cyg_scheduler_unlock</TT
588 
>. If the critical region
589 
is sufficiently small then this can actually improve both performance
590 
and dispatch latency because <TT
591 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
592 
>cyg_mutex_lock</TT
593 
> also
594 
locks the scheduler for a brief period of time. This approach will not
595 
work on SMP systems because another thread may already be running on a
596 
different processor and accessing the critical region.
597 
      </P
598 
><P
599 
>Another way of avoiding the use of mutexes is to make sure that all
600 
threads that access a particular critical region run at the same
601 
priority and configure the system with timeslicing disabled
602 
(<TT
603 
CLASS="VARNAME"
604 
>CYGSEM_KERNEL_SCHED_TIMESLICE</TT
605 
>). Without
606 
timeslicing a thread can only be preempted by a higher-priority one,
607 
or if it performs some operation that can block. This approach
608 
requires that none of the operations in the critical region can block,
609 
so for example it is not legal to call
610 
<TT
611 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
612 
>cyg_semaphore_wait</TT
613 
>. It is also vulnerable to
614 
any changes in the configuration or to the various thread priorities:
615 
any such changes may now have unexpected side effects. It will not
616 
work on SMP systems.
617 
      </P
618 
></DIV
619 
><DIV
620 
CLASS="REFSECT1"
621 
><A
622 
NAME="KERNEL-MUTEXES-RECURSIVE"
623 
></A
624 
><H2
625 
>Recursive Mutexes</H2
626 
><P
627 
>The implementation of mutexes within the eCos kernel does not support
628 
recursive locks. If a thread has locked a mutex and then attempts to
629 
lock the mutex again, typically as a result of some recursive call in
630 
a complicated call graph, then either an assertion failure will be
631 
reported or the thread will deadlock. This behaviour is deliberate.
632 
When a thread has just locked a mutex associated with some data
633 
structure, it can assume that that data structure is in a consistent
634 
state. Before unlocking the mutex again it must ensure that the data
635 
structure is again in a consistent state. Recursive mutexes allow a
636 
thread to make arbitrary changes to a data structure, then in a
637 
recursive call lock the mutex again while the data structure is still
638 
inconsistent. The net result is that code can no longer make any
639 
assumptions about data structure consistency, which defeats the
640 
purpose of using mutexes.
641 
      </P
642 
></DIV
643 
><DIV
644 
CLASS="REFSECT1"
645 
><A
646 
NAME="KERNEL-MUTEXES-CONTEXT"
647 
></A
648 
><H2
649 
>Valid contexts</H2
650 
><P
651 
><TT
652 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
653 
>cyg_mutex_init</TT
654 
>,
655 
<TT
656 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
657 
>cyg_mutex_set_ceiling</TT
658 
> and
659 
<TT
660 
CLASS="FUNCTION"
661 
>cyg_mutex_set_protocol</TT
662 
> are normally called during
663 
initialization but may also be called from thread context. The
664 
remaining functions should only be called from thread context. Mutexes
665 
serve as a mutual exclusion mechanism between threads, and cannot be
666 
used to synchronize between threads and the interrupt handling
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subsystem. If a critical region is shared between a thread and a DSR
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>. If a critical region is
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shared between a thread and an ISR, it must be protected by disabling
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or masking interrupts. Obviously these operations must be used with
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care because they can affect dispatch and interrupt latencies.
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