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<P><table class="ttop"><th class="tpre"><a href="06_Data_Path.html">Previous Lesson</a></th><th class="ttop"><a href="toc.html">Table of Content</a></th><th class="tnxt"><a href="08_IO.html">Next Lesson</a></th></table>
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<H1><A NAME="section_1">7 OPCODE DECODER</A></H1>
 
<P>In this lesson we will describe the opcode decoder. We will also learn
how the different instructions provided by the CPU will be implemented. We
will not describe every opcode, but rather groups of instructions whose
individual instructions are rather similar.
 
<P>The opcode decoder is the middle state of our CPU pipeline. Therefore its
inputs are defined by the outputs of the previous stage and its outputs
are defined by the inputs of the next stage.
 
<H2><A NAME="section_1_1">7.1 Inputs of the Opcode Decoder</A></H2>
 
<UL>
  <LI><STRONG>CLK</STRONG> is the clock signal. The opcode decoder is a pure pipeline stage
  so that no internal state is kept between clock cycles. The output of
  the opcode decoder is a pure function of its inputs.
  <LI><STRONG>OPC</STRONG> is the opcode being decoded.
  <LI><STRONG>PC</STRONG> is the program counter (the address in the program memory from
  which OPC was fetched).
  <LI><STRONG>T0</STRONG> is '1' in the first cycle of the execution of the opcode. This allows
  for output signals of two-cycle instructions that are different in the
  first and the second cycle.
</UL>
<H2><A NAME="section_1_2">7.2 Outputs of the Opcode Decoder</A></H2>
 
<P>Most data buses of the CPU are contained in the data path. In contrast,
most control signals are generated in the opcode decoder. We start with
a complete list of these control signals and their purpose. There are
two groups of signals: select signals and write enable signals. Select
signals are used earlier in the execution of the opcode for controlling
multiplexers. The write enable signals are used at the end of the execution
to determine where results shall be stored. Select signals are generally
more time-critical that write enable signals.
 
<P>The select signals are:
 
<UL>
  <LI><STRONG>ALU_OP</STRONG> defines which particular ALU operation (like <STRONG>ADD</STRONG>, <STRONG>ADC</STRONG>, <STRONG>AND</STRONG>,
  ...) the ALU shall perform.
  <LI><STRONG>AMOD</STRONG> defines which addressing mode (like <STRONG>absolute</STRONG>, <STRONG>Z+</STRONG>, <STRONG>-SP</STRONG>, etc.)shall
  be used for data memory accesses.
  <LI><STRONG>BIT</STRONG> is a bit value (0 or 1) and a bit number used in bit instructions.
  <LI><STRONG>DDDDD</STRONG> defines the destination register or register pair (if any)
  for storing the result of an operation. It also defines the first
  source register or register pair of a dyadic instructions.
  <LI><STRONG>IMM</STRONG> defines an immediate value or branch address that is computed
  from the opcode.
  <LI><STRONG>JADR</STRONG> is a branch address.
  <LI><STRONG>OPC</STRONG> is the opcode being decoded, or 0 if the opcode was invalidated
  by means of <STRONG>SKIP</STRONG>.
  <LI><STRONG>PC</STRONG> is the <STRONG>PC</STRONG> from which <STRONG>OPC</STRONG> was fetched.
  <LI><STRONG>PC_OP</STRONG> defines an operation to be performed on the <STRONG>PC</STRONG> (such as branching).
  <LI><STRONG>PMS</STRONG> is set when the address defined by <STRONG>AMOD</STRONG> is a program memory address
  rather than a data memory address.
  <LI><STRONG>RD_M</STRONG> is set for reads from the data memory.
  <LI><STRONG>RRRRR</STRONG> defines the second register or register pair of a dyadic
  instruction.
  <LI><STRONG>RSEL</STRONG> selects the source of the second operand in the ALU.
  This can be a register (on the <STRONG>R</STRONG> input), an immediate value (on
  the <STRONG>IMM</STRONG> input), or data from memory or I/O (on the <STRONG>DIN</STRONG> input).
</UL>
<P>The write enable signals are:
 
<UL>
  <LI><STRONG>WE_01</STRONG> is set when register pair 0 shall be written. This is used for
  multiplication instructions that store the multiplication product in
  register pair 0.
  <LI><STRONG>WE_D</STRONG> is set when the register or register pair <STRONG>DDDDD</STRONG> shall be written.
  If both bits are set then the entire pair shall be written and <STRONG>DDDDD[0]</STRONG>
  is 0. Otherwise <STRONG>WE_D[1]</STRONG> is 0, and one of the registers (as defined by
  <STRONG>DDDDD[0]</STRONG>) shall be written, 
  <LI><STRONG>WE_F</STRONG> is set when the status register (flags) shall be written.
  <LI><STRONG>WE_M</STRONG> is set when the memory (including memory mapped general purpose
  registers and I/O registers) shall be written. If set, then the <STRONG>AMOD</STRONG>
  output defines how to compute the memory address.
  <LI><STRONG>WE_XYZS</STRONG> is set when the stack pointer or one of the pointer register pairs
  <STRONG>X</STRONG>, <STRONG>Y</STRONG>, or <STRONG>Z</STRONG> shall be written. Which of these register is meant is
  encoded in <STRONG>AMOD</STRONG>.
</UL>
<H2><A NAME="section_1_3">7.3 Structure of the Opcode Decoder</A></H2>
 
<P>The VHDL code of the opcode decoder consists essentially of a huge case
statement. At the beginning of the case statement there is a section
assigning a default value to each output. Then follows a case statement that
decodes the upper 6 bits of the opcode:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
 66	    process(I_CLK)
 67	    begin
 68	    if (rising_edge(I_CLK)) then
 69	        --
 70	        -- set the most common settings as default.
 71	        --
 72	        Q_ALU_OP  <= ALU_D_MV_Q;
 73	        Q_AMOD    <= AMOD_ABS;
 74	        Q_BIT     <= I_OPC(10) & I_OPC(2 downto 0);
 75	        Q_DDDDD   <= I_OPC(8 downto 4);
 76	        Q_IMM     <= X"0000";
 77	        Q_JADR    <= I_OPC(31 downto 16);
 78	        Q_OPC     <= I_OPC(15 downto  0);
 79	        Q_PC      <= I_PC;
 80	        Q_PC_OP   <= PC_NEXT;
 81	        Q_PMS     <= '0';
 82	        Q_RD_M    <= '0';
 83	        Q_RRRRR   <= I_OPC(9) & I_OPC(3 downto 0);
 84	        Q_RSEL    <= RS_REG;
 85	        Q_WE_D    <= "00";
 86	        Q_WE_01   <= '0';
 87	        Q_WE_F    <= '0';
 88	        Q_WE_M    <= "00";
 89	        Q_WE_XYZS <= '0';
 90	
 91	        case I_OPC(15 downto 10) is
 92	            when "000000" =>
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P>...
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
653	            when others =>
654	        end case;
655	    end if;
656	    end process;
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<H2><A NAME="section_1_4">7.4 Default Values for the Outputs</A></H2>
 
<P>The opcode decoder generates quite a few outputs. A typical instruction,
however, only sets a small fraction of them. For this reason we provide a
default value for all outputs before the top level case statement,
as shown above.<BR>
For each instruction we then only need to specify those outputs that
differ from the default value.
 
<P>Every default value is either constant or a function of an input.
Therefore the opcode decoder is a typical "stateless" pipeline stage.
The default values are chosen so that they do not change
anything in the other stages (except incrementing the PC, of course).
In particular, the default values for all write enable signals are '0'.
 
<H2><A NAME="section_1_5">7.5 Checklist for the Design of an Opcode.</A></H2>
 
<P>Designing an opcode starts with asking a number of questions. The answers
are found in the specification of the opcode. The answers identify the outputs
that need to be set other than their default values.
While the instructions are quite different, the questions are always the same:
 
<OL>
  <LI>What operation shall the ALU perform?
   Set <STRONG>ALU_OP</STRONG> and <STRONG>Q_WE_F</STRONG> accordingly.
  <LI>Is a destination register or destination register pair used?
   If so, set <STRONG>DDDDD</STRONG> (and <STRONG>WE_D</STRONG> if written). 
  <LI>Is a second register or register pair involved?
   If so, set <STRONG>RRRRR</STRONG>.
  <LI>Does the opcode access the memory?
   If so, set <STRONG>AMOD</STRONG>, <STRONG>PMS</STRONG>, <STRONG>RSEL</STRONG>, <STRONG>RD_M</STRONG>, <STRONG>WE_M</STRONG>, and <STRONG>WE_XYZS</STRONG> accordingly.
  <LI>Is an immediate or implied operand used?
   If so, set <STRONG>IMM</STRONG> and <STRONG>RSEL</STRONG>.
  <LI>Is the program counter modified (other than incrementing it)?
   If so, set <STRONG>PC_OP</STRONG> and <STRONG>SKIP</STRONG>.
  <LI>Is a bit number specified in the opcode ?
   If so, set <STRONG>BIT</STRONG>.
  <LI>Are instructions skipped?
   If so, set <STRONG>SKIP</STRONG>.
</OL>
<P>Equipped with this checklist we can implement all instructions. We
start with the simplest instructions and proceed to the more complex
instructions.
 
<H2><A NAME="section_1_6">7.6 Opcode Implementations</A></H2>
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_6_1">7.6.1 The NOP instruction</A></H3>
 
<P>The simplest instruction is the NOP instruction which does - nothing.
The default values set for all outputs do nothing either so there is
no extra VHDL code needed for this instruction.
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_6_2">7.6.2 8-bit Monadic Instructions</A></H3>
 
<P>We call an instruction <STRONG>monadic</STRONG> if its opcode contains one register
number and if the instructions reads the register before computing
a new value for it.
 
<P>Only items 1. and 2. in our checklist apply. The default value for
<STRONG>DDDDD</STRONG> is already correct. Thus only <STRONG>ALU_OP</STRONG>, <STRONG>WE_D</STRONG>, and <STRONG>WE_F</STRONG>
need to be set. We take the <STRONG>DEC Rd</STRONG> instruction as an example:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
465	                                --
466	                                --  1001 010d dddd 1010 - DEC
467	                                --
468	                                Q_ALU_OP <= ALU_DEC;
469	                                Q_WE_D <= "01";
470	                                Q_WE_F <= '1';
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>All monadic arithmetic/logic instructions are implemented in the same way;
they differ by their <STRONG>ALU_OP</STRONG>.
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_6_3">7.6.3 8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Register</A></H3>
 
<P>We call an instruction <STRONG>dyadic</STRONG> if its opcode contains two data sources
(a data source being a register number or an immediate operand).
As a consequence of the two data sources, dyadic instructions
occupy a larger fraction of the opcode space than monadic functions.
 
<P>We take the <STRONG>ADD Rd, Rr</STRONG> opcode as an example. 
 
<P>Compared to the monadic functions now item 3. in the checklist applies
as well. This would mean we have to set <STRONG>RRRRR</STRONG> but by chance the default
value is already correct. Therefore:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
165	                --
166	                -- 0000 11rd dddd rrrr - ADD
167	                --
168	                Q_ALU_OP <= ALU_ADD;
169	                Q_WE_D <= "01";
170	                Q_WE_F <= '1';
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>The dyadic instructions do not use the I/O address space and therefore they
completely execute inside the data path. The following figure shows the
signals in the data path that are used by the <STRONG>ADD Rd, Rr</STRONG> instruction:
 
<P><img src="opcode_decoder_1.png">
 
<P>The opcode for <STRONG>ADD Rd, Rr</STRONG> is <STRONG> 0000</STRONG> <STRONG> 11rd</STRONG> <STRONG>dddd</STRONG> <STRONG>rrrr</STRONG>.
The opcode decoder extracts the 'd' bits into the <STRONG>DDDDD</STRONG> signal (blue),
the 'r' bits into the <STRONG>RRRRR</STRONG> signal (red), and computes <STRONG>ALU_OP</STRONG>, <STRONG>WE_D</STRONG>,
and <STRONG>WE_F</STRONG> from the remaining bits (green) as above.
 
<P>The register file converts the register numbers <STRONG>Rd</STRONG> and <STRONG>Rr</STRONG> that are
encoded in the <STRONG>DDDDD</STRONG> and <STRONG>RRRRR</STRONG> signals to the contents of the register
pairs at its <STRONG>D</STRONG> and <STRONG>R</STRONG> outputs. The lowest bit of the <STRONG>DDDDD</STRONG> and <STRONG>RRRRR</STRONG>
signals also go to the ALU (inputs <STRONG>D0</STRONG> and <STRONG>R0</STRONG>) where the odd/even register
selection from the two register pairs is performed.
 
<P>The decoder also selects the proper <STRONG>ALU_OP</STRONG> from the opcode, which is
<STRONG>ALU_ADD</STRONG> in this example. With this input, the ALU computes the sum of the
its <STRONG>D</STRONG> and <STRONG>R</STRONG> inputs and drives its <STRONG>DOUT</STRONG> (pink) with the sum.
It also computes the flags as defined for the <STRONG>ADD</STRONG> opcode.
 
<P>The decoder sets the <STRONG>WE_D</STRONG> and <STRONG>WE_F</STRONG> inputs of the register file
so that the <STRONG>DOUT</STRONG> and <STRONG>FLAGS</STRONG> outputs of the ALU are written back to the
register file.
 
<P>All this happens within a single clock cycle, so that the next instruction
can be performed in the next clock cycle.
 
<P>The other dyadic instructions are implemented similarly.
Two instructions, <STRONG>CMP</STRONG> and <STRONG>CPC</STRONG>, deviate a little since they do not set
<STRONG>WE_D</STRONG>. Only the flags are set as a result of the comparison.
Apart from that, <STRONG>CMP</STRONG> and <STRONG>CPC</STRONG> are identical to the <STRONG>SUB</STRONG> and <STRONG>SBC</STRONG>;
they don't have their own <STRONG>ALU_OP</STRONG> but use those of the <STRONG>SUB</STRONG> and <STRONG>SBC</STRONG>
instructions.
 
<P>The <STRONG>MOV Rd, Rr</STRONG> instruction is implemented as a dyadic function.
It ignores it first argument and does not set any flags.
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_6_4">7.6.4 8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Immediate</A></H3>
 
<P>Some of the dyadic instructions have an immediate operand (i.e. the operand is
contained in the opcode) rather than using a second register. For such
instructions, for example <STRONG>ANDI</STRONG>, we extract the immediate operand from the
opcode and set <STRONG>RSEL</STRONG>. Since the immediate operand takes quite some space in
the opcode, the register range was restricted a little and hence the default
<STRONG>DDDDD</STRONG> value needs a modification.
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
263	                --
264	                -- 0111 KKKK dddd KKKK - ANDI
265	                --
266	                Q_ALU_OP <= ALU_AND;
267	                Q_IMM(7 downto 0) <= I_OPC(11 downto 8) & I_OPC(3 downto 0);
268	                Q_RSEL <= RS_IMM;
269	                Q_DDDDD(4) <= '1';    -- Rd = 16...31
270	                Q_WE_D <= "01";
271	                Q_WE_F <= '1';
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_6_5">7.6.5 16-bit Dyadic Instructions</A></H3>
 
<P>Some of the dyadic 8-bit instructions have 16-bit variants, for example <STRONG>ADIW</STRONG>.
The second operand of these 16-bit variants can be another register pair or an
immediate operand.
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
499	                    --
500	                    --  1001 0110 KKdd KKKK - ADIW
501	                    --  1001 0111 KKdd KKKK - SBIW
502	                    --
503	                    if (I_OPC(8) = '0') then    Q_ALU_OP <= ALU_ADIW;
504	                    else                        Q_ALU_OP <= ALU_SBIW;
505	                    end if;
506	                    Q_IMM(5 downto 4) <= I_OPC(7 downto 6);
507	                    Q_IMM(3 downto 0) <= I_OPC(3 downto 0);
508	                    Q_RSEL <= RS_IMM;
509	                    Q_DDDDD <= "11" & I_OPC(5 downto 4) & "0";
510	                    
511	                    Q_WE_D <= "11";
512	                    Q_WE_F <= '1';
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>These instructions are implemented similar to their 8-bit relatives, but
in contrast to them both <STRONG>WE_D</STRONG> bits are set. This causes the entire
register pair to be updated. <STRONG>LDI</STRONG> and <STRONG>MOVW</STRONG> are also implemented as
16-bit dyadic instruction.
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_6_6">7.6.6 Bit Instructions</A></H3>
 
<P>There are some instructions that are very similar to monadic functions
(in that they refer to only one register) but have a small immediate operand
that addresses a bit in that register. Unlike dyadic functions with immediate
operands, these bit instructions do not use the register/immediate
multiplexer in the ALU (they don't have a register counterpart for the
immediate operand). Instead, the bit number from the instruction is provided
on the <STRONG>BIT</STRONG> output of the opcode decoder.
The <STRONG>BIT</STRONG> output has 4 bits; in addition to the (lower) 3 bits needed to
address the bit concerned, the fourth (upper) bit indicates the value
(bit set or bit cleared) of the bit for those instructions that need it.
 
<P>The ALU operations related to these bit instructions are <STRONG>ALU_BLD</STRONG> and
<STRONG><STRONG>ALU_BIT_CS</STRONG>.</STRONG>
 
<P><STRONG>ALU_BLD</STRONG> stores the T bit of the status register into a bit in a general
purpose register; this is used to implement  the <STRONG>BLD</STRONG> instruction.
 
<P><STRONG>ALU_BIT_CS</STRONG> is a dual-purpose function.
 
<P>The first purpose is to copy a bit in a general purpose register into the
<STRONG>T</STRONG> flag of the status register.  This use of <STRONG>ALU_BIT_CS</STRONG> is selected by
setting (only) the <STRONG>WE_F</STRONG> signal so that the status register is updated
with the new <STRONG>T</STRONG> flag. The <STRONG>BST</STRONG> instruction is implemented this way. The
the bit value in <STRONG>BIT[3]</STRONG> is ignored.
 
<P>The second purpose is to set or clear a bit in an I/O register.
The ALU first computes a bitmask where only the bit indicated
by <STRONG>BIT[2:0]</STRONG> is set. Depending on BIT[3] the register is then <STRONG>or</STRONG>'ed with
the mask or <STRONG>and</STRONG>'ed with the complement of the mask. This sets or clears
the bit in the current value of the register. This use of <STRONG>ALU_BIT_CS</STRONG>
is selected by <STRONG>WE_M</STRONG> so the I/O register is updated with the new value.
The <STRONG>CBI</STRONG> and <STRONG>SBI</STRONG> instructions are implemented this way.
 
<P><STRONG>ALU_BIT_CS</STRONG> is also used by the skip instructions <STRONG>SBRC</STRONG> and <STRONG>SBRC</STRONG> that are
described in the section about branching.
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_6_7">7.6.7 Multiplication Instructions</A></H3>
 
<P>There is a zoo of multiplication instructions that differ in the
signedness of their operands (<STRONG>MUL</STRONG>, <STRONG>MULS</STRONG>, <STRONG>MULSU</STRONG>) and in whether
the final result is shifted (<STRONG>FMUL</STRONG>, <STRONG>FMULS</STRONG>, and <STRONG>FMULSU</STRONG>) or not.
The opcode decoder sets certain bits in the IMM signal to indicate the
type of multiplication:
 
<TABLE>
<TR><TD>IMM(7) = 1</TD><TD>shift (FMULxx)
</TD></TR><TR><TD>IMM(6) = 1</TD><TD>Rd is signed
</TD></TR><TR><TD>IMM(5) = 1</TD><TD>Rr is signed
</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<P>We also set the <STRONG>WE_01</STRONG> instead of the <STRONG>WE_D</STRONG> signal because the
multiplication result is stored in register pair 0 rather than in the
Rd register of the opcode.
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
129	                        --
130	                        -- 0000 0011 0ddd 0rrr - _MULSU  SU "010"
131	                        -- 0000 0011 0ddd 1rrr - FMUL    UU "100"
132	                        -- 0000 0011 1ddd 0rrr - FMULS   SS "111"
133	                        -- 0000 0011 1ddd 1rrr - FMULSU  SU "110"
134	                        --
135	                        Q_DDDDD(4 downto 3) <= "10";    -- regs 16 to 23
136	                        Q_RRRRR(4 downto 3) <= "10";    -- regs 16 to 23
137	                        Q_ALU_OP <= ALU_MULT;
138	                        if I_OPC(7) = '0' then
139	                            if I_OPC(3) = '0' then 
140	                                Q_IMM(7 downto 5) <= MULT_SU;
141	                            else
142	                                Q_IMM(7 downto 5) <= MULT_FUU;
143	                            end if;
144	                        else
145	                            if I_OPC(3) = '0' then 
146	                                Q_IMM(7 downto 5) <= MULT_FSS;
147	                            else
148	                                Q_IMM(7 downto 5) <= MULT_FSU;
149	                            end if;
150	                        end if;
151	                        Q_WE_01 <= '1';
152	                        Q_WE_F <= '1';
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_6_8">7.6.8 Instructions Writing To Memory or I/O</A></H3>
 
<P>Instructions that write to memory or I/O registers need to set <STRONG>AMOD</STRONG>.
<STRONG>AMOD</STRONG> selects the pointer register involved (<STRONG>X</STRONG>, <STRONG>Y</STRONG>, <STRONG>Z</STRONG>, <STRONG>SP</STRONG>, or none).
If the addressing mode involves a pointer register and updates it, then
<STRONG>WE_XYZS</STRONG> needs to be set as well.
 
<P>The following code fragment shows a number of store functions and how
<STRONG>AMOD</STRONG> is computed:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
333	                    --
334	                    -- 1001 00-1r rrrr 0000 - STS
335	                    -- 1001 00-1r rrrr 0001 - ST Z+. Rr
336	                    -- 1001 00-1r rrrr 0010 - ST -Z. Rr
337	                    -- 1001 00-1r rrrr 1000 - ST Y. Rr
338	                    -- 1001 00-1r rrrr 1001 - ST Y+. Rr
339	                    -- 1001 00-1r rrrr 1010 - ST -Y. Rr
340	                    -- 1001 00-1r rrrr 1100 - ST X. Rr
341	                    -- 1001 00-1r rrrr 1101 - ST X+. Rr
342	                    -- 1001 00-1r rrrr 1110 - ST -X. Rr
343	                    -- 1001 00-1r rrrr 1111 - PUSH Rr
344	                    --
345	                    Q_ALU_OP <= ALU_D_MV_Q;
346	                    Q_WE_M <= "01";
347	                    Q_WE_XYZS <= '1';
348	                    case I_OPC(3 downto 0) is
349	                        when "0000" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_ABS;  Q_WE_XYZS <= '0';
350	                        when "0001" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_Zi;
351	                        when "0010" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_dZ;
352	                        when "1001" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_Yi;
353	                        when "1010" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_dY;
354	                        when "1100" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_X;    Q_WE_XYZS <= '0';
355	                        when "1101" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_Xi;
356	                        when "1110" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_dX;
357	                        when "1111" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_dSP;
358	                        when others =>
359	                    end case;
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P><STRONG>ALU_OP</STRONG> is set to <STRONG>ALU_D_MOV_Q</STRONG>. This causes the source register
indicated by <STRONG>DDDDD</STRONG> to be switched through the ALU unchanged so that is
shows up at the input of the data memory and of the I/O block. We set
<STRONG>WE_M</STRONG> so that the value of the source register will be written.
 
<P>Write instructions to memory execute in a single cycle.
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_6_9">7.6.9 Instructions Reading From Memory or I/O</A></H3>
 
<P>Instructions that read from memory set <STRONG>AMOD</STRONG> and possibly <STRONG>WE_XYZS</STRONG> in the
same way as instructions writing to memory.
 
<P>The following code fragment shows a number of load functions:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
297	                Q_IMM <= I_OPC(31 downto 16);   -- absolute address for LDS/STS
298	                if (I_OPC(9) = '0') then        -- LDD / POP
299	                    --
300	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 0000 - LDS
301	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 0001 - LD Rd, Z+
302	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 0010 - LD Rd, -Z
303	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 0100 - (ii)  LPM Rd, (Z)
304	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 0101 - (iii) LPM Rd, (Z+)
305	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 0110 - ELPM Z        --- not mega8
306	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 0111 - ELPM Z+       --- not mega8
307	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 1001 - LD Rd, Y+
308	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 1010 - LD Rd, -Y
309	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 1100 - LD Rd, X
310	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 1101 - LD Rd, X+
311	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 1110 - LD Rd, -X
312	                    -- 1001 00-0d dddd 1111 - POP Rd
313	                    --
314	                    Q_RSEL <= RS_DIN;
315	                    Q_RD_M <= I_T0;
316	                    Q_WE_D <= '0' & not I_T0;
317	                    Q_WE_XYZS <= not I_T0;
318	                    Q_PMS <= (not I_OPC(3)) and I_OPC(2) and (not I_OPC(1));
319	                    case I_OPC(3 downto 0) is
320	                        when "0000" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_ABS;  Q_WE_XYZS <= '0';
321	                        when "0001" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_Zi;
322	                        when "0100" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_Z;    Q_WE_XYZS <= '0';
323	                        when "0101" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_Zi;
324	                        when "1001" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_Yi;
325	                        when "1010" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_dY;
326	                        when "1100" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_X;    Q_WE_XYZS <= '0';
327	                        when "1101" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_Xi;
328	                        when "1110" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_dX;
329	                        when "1111" => Q_AMOD <= AMOD_SPi;
330	                        when others =>                      Q_WE_XYZS <= '0';
331	                    end case;
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>The data read from memory now comes from the <STRONG>DIN</STRONG> input. We therefore
set <STRONG>RSEL</STRONG> to <STRONG>RS_DIN</STRONG>. The data read from the memory is again switched
through the ALU unchanged, but we use <STRONG>ALU_R_MOV_Q</STRONG> instead of <STRONG>ALU_D_MOV_Q</STRONG>
because the data from memory is now routed via the multiplexer for <STRONG>R8</STRONG>
rather than via the multiplexer for <STRONG>D8</STRONG>. We generate <STRONG>RD_M</STRONG> instead of <STRONG>WE_M</STRONG>
since we are now reading and not writing. The result is stored in the
register indicated by <STRONG>DDDDD</STRONG>, so we set <STRONG>WE_D</STRONG>.
 
<P>One of the load instructions is <STRONG>LPM</STRONG> which reads from program store rather
then from the data memory. For this instruction we set <STRONG>PMS</STRONG>.
 
<P>Unlike store instructions, load instructions execute in two cycles. The reason
is the internal memory modules which need one clock cycle to produce a result.
We therefore generate the <STRONG>WE_D</STRONG> and <STRONG>WE_XYZS</STRONG> only on the second of the
two cycles.
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_6_10">7.6.10 Jump and Call Instructions</A></H3>
 
<H4><A NAME="section_1_6_10_1">7.6.10.1 Unconditional Jump to Absolute Address</A></H4>
 
<P>The simplest case of a jump instruction is <STRONG>JMP</STRONG>, an unconditional jump to
an absolute address:
 
<P>The target address of the jump follows after the instruction. Due to our
odd/even trick with the program memory, the target address is provided on
the upper 16 bits of the opcode and we need not wait for it. We copy the
target address from the upper 16 bits of the opcode to the <STRONG>IMM</STRONG> output.
Then we set <STRONG>PC_OP</STRONG> to <STRONG>PC_LD_I</STRONG>:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
478	                                --
479	                                --  1001 010k kkkk 110k - JMP (k = 0 for 16 bit)
480	                                --  kkkk kkkk kkkk kkkk
481	                                --
482	                                Q_PC_OP <= PC_LD_I;
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>The execution stage will then cause the <STRONG>PC</STRONG> to be loaded from its <STRONG>JADR</STRONG> input:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
209	            when PC_LD_I => Q_LOAD_PC <= '1';       -- yes: new PC on I_JADR
<pre class="filename">
src/data_path.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>The next opcode after the <STRONG>JMP</STRONG> is already in the pipeline and would be
executed next. We invalidate the next opcode so that it will not be
executed:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
222	            when PC_LD_I   => Q_SKIP <= '1';            -- yes
<pre class="filename">
src/data_path.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>An instruction similar to <STRONG>JMP</STRONG> is <STRONG>IJMP</STRONG>. The difference is that the target
address of the jump is not provided as an immediate address following the
opcode, but is the content of the Z register. This case is handled by a
different <STRONG>PC_OP</STRONG>:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
450	                                --
451	                                --  1001 0100 0000 1001 IJMP
452	                                --  1001 0100 0001 1001 EIJMP   -- not mega8
453	                                --  1001 0101 0000 1001 ICALL
454	                                --  1001 0101 0001 1001 EICALL   -- not mega8
455	                                --
456	                                Q_PC_OP <= PC_LD_Z;
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>The execution stage, which contains the <STRONG>Z</STRONG> register, performs the
selection of the target address, as we have already seen in the discussion
of the data path.
 
<H4><A NAME="section_1_6_10_2">7.6.10.2 Unconditional Jump to Relative Address</A></H4>
 
<P>The <STRONG>RJMP</STRONG> instruction is similar to the <STRONG>JMP</STRONG> instruction. The target
address of the jump is, however, an address relative to the current <STRONG>PC</STRONG>
(plus 1). We sign-extend the relative address (by replicating <STRONG>OPC(11)</STRONG>
until a 16-bit value is reached) and add the current <STRONG>PC</STRONG>.
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
580	                --
581	                -- 1100 kkkk kkkk kkkk - RJMP
582	                --
583	                Q_JADR <= I_PC + (I_OPC(11) & I_OPC(11) & I_OPC(11) & I_OPC(11)
584	                                & I_OPC(11 downto 0)) + X"0001";
585	                Q_PC_OP <= PC_LD_I;
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>The rest of <STRONG>RJMP</STRONG> is the same as for <STRONG>JMP</STRONG>.
 
<H4><A NAME="section_1_6_10_3">7.6.10.3 Conditional Jump to Relative Address</A></H4>
 
<P>There is a number of conditional jump instructions that differ by the
bit in the status register that controls whether the branch is taken or not.
<STRONG>BRCS</STRONG> and <STRONG>BRCC</STRONG> branch if bit 0 (the carry flag) is set resp. cleared.
<STRONG>BREQ</STRONG> and <STRONG>BRNE</STRONG> branch if bit 1 (the zero flag) is set resp. cleared,
and so on.
 
<P>There is also a generic form where the bit number is an operand of the
opcode. <STRONG>BRBS</STRONG> branches if a status register flag is set while <STRONG>BRBC</STRONG>
branches if a bit is cleared. This means that <STRONG>BRCS</STRONG>, <STRONG>BREQ</STRONG>, ... are
just different names for the <STRONG>BRBS</STRONG> instruction, while <STRONG>BRCC</STRONG>, <STRONG>BRNE</STRONG>, ...
are different name for the <STRONG>BRBC</STRONG> instruction.
 
<P>The relative address (i.e. the offset from the PC) for <STRONG>BRBC</STRONG>/<STRONG>BRBS</STRONG> is
shorter (7 bit) than for <STRONG>RJMP</STRONG> (12 bit). Therefore the sign bit of the
offset is replicated more often in order to get a 16-bit signed offset
that can be added to the <STRONG>PC</STRONG>.
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
610	                --
611	                -- 1111 00kk kkkk kbbb - BRBS
612	                -- 1111 01kk kkkk kbbb - BRBC
613	                --       v
614	                -- bbb: status register bit
615	                -- v: value (set/cleared) of status register bit
616	                --
617	                Q_JADR <= I_PC + (I_OPC(9) & I_OPC(9) & I_OPC(9) & I_OPC(9)
618	                                & I_OPC(9) & I_OPC(9) & I_OPC(9) & I_OPC(9)
619	                                & I_OPC(9) & I_OPC(9 downto 3)) + X"0001";
620	                Q_PC_OP <= PC_BCC;
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>The decision to branch or not is taken in the execution stage, because
at the time where the conditional branch is decoded, the relevant bit
in the status register is not yet valid.
 
<H4><A NAME="section_1_6_10_4">7.6.10.4 Call Instructions</A></H4>
 
<P>Many unconditional jump instructions have "call" variant. The "call"
variant are executed like the corresponding jump instruction. In
addition (and at the same time), the <STRONG>PC</STRONG> after the instruction is pushed
onto the stack. We take <STRONG>CALL</STRONG>, the brother of <STRONG>JMP</STRONG> as an example:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
485	                                --
486	                                --  1001 010k kkkk 111k - CALL (k = 0)
487	                                --  kkkk kkkk kkkk kkkk
488	                                --
489	                                Q_ALU_OP <= ALU_PC_2;
490	                                Q_AMOD <= AMOD_ddSP;
491	                                Q_PC_OP <= PC_LD_I;
492	                                Q_WE_M <= "11";     -- both PC bytes
493	                                Q_WE_XYZS <= '1';
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>The new things are an <STRONG>ALU_OP</STRONG> of <STRONG>ALU_PC_2</STRONG>. The ALU adds 2 to the <STRONG>PC</STRONG>,
since the <STRONG>CALL</STRONG> instructions is 2 words long. The <STRONG>RCALL</STRONG> instruction,
which is only 1 word long would use <STRONG>ALU_PC_1</STRONG> instead. <STRONG>AMOD</STRONG> is
pre-decrement of the <STRONG>SP</STRONG> by 2 (since the return address is 2 bytes long).
Both bits of <STRONG>WE_M</STRONG> are set since we write 2 bytes.
 
<H4><A NAME="section_1_6_10_5">7.6.10.5 Skip Instructions</A></H4>
 
<P>Skip instructions do not modify the PC, but they invalidate the next
instruction. Like for conditional branch instructions, the condition
is checked in the execution stage.
 
<P>We take <STRONG>SBIC</STRONG> as an example:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
516	                --
517	                --  1001 1000 AAAA Abbb - CBI
518	                --  1001 1001 AAAA Abbb - SBIC
519	                --  1001 1010 AAAA Abbb - SBI
520	                --  1001 1011 AAAA Abbb - SBIS
521	                --
522	                Q_ALU_OP <= ALU_BIT_CS;
523	                Q_AMOD <= AMOD_ABS;
524	                Q_BIT(3) <= I_OPC(9);   -- set/clear
525	
526	                -- IMM = AAAAAA + 0x20
527	                --
528	                Q_IMM(4 downto 0) <= I_OPC(7 downto 3);
529	                Q_IMM(6 downto 5) <= "01";
530	
531	                Q_RD_M <= I_T0;
532	                if ((I_OPC(8) = '0') ) then     -- CBI or SBI
533	                    Q_WE_M(0) <= '1';
534	                else                            -- SBIC or SBIS
535	                    if (I_T0 = '0') then        -- second cycle.
536	                        Q_PC_OP <= PC_SKIP_T;
537	                    end if;
538	                end if;
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>First of all, <STRONG>AMOD</STRONG>, <STRONG>IMM</STRONG>, and <STRONG>RSEL</STRONG> are set such that the value
from the I/O register indicated by <STRONG>IMM</STRONG> reaches the ALU.
<STRONG>ALU_OP</STRONG> and <STRONG>BIT</STRONG> are set such that the relevant bit reaches
<STRONG>FLAGS_98(9)</STRONG> in the data path. The access of the bit followed by a
skip decision would have taken too long for a single cycle.
We therefore extract the bit in the first cycle and store it in
the <STRONG>FLAGS_98(9)</STRONG> signal in the data path. In the next cycle,
the decision to skip or not is taken.
 
<P>The <STRONG>PC_OP</STRONG> of <STRONG>PC_SKIP_T</STRONG> causes the <STRONG>SKIP</STRONG> output of the execution stage
to be raised if <STRONG>FLAGS_98(9)</STRONG> is set:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
226	            when PC_SKIP_T => Q_SKIP <= L_FLAGS_98(9);  -- if T set
<pre class="filename">
src/data_path.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>A similar instruction is CPSE, which skips the next instruction when a
comparison (rather than a bit in an I/O register) indicates equality.
It works like a CP instruction, but raises <STRONG>SKIP</STRONG> in the execution stage
rather than updating the status register.
 
<H4><A NAME="section_1_6_10_6">7.6.10.6 Interrupts</A></H4>
 
<P>We have seen earlier, that the opcode fetch stage inserts "interrupt
instructions" into the pipeline when an interrupt occurs. These interrupt
instructions are similar to <STRONG>CALL</STRONG> instructions. In contrast to <STRONG>CALL</STRONG>
instructions, however, we use <STRONG>ALU_INTR</STRONG> instead of <STRONG>ALU_PC_2</STRONG>. This
copies the <STRONG>PC</STRONG> (rather than <STRONG>PC</STRONG> + 2) to the output of the ALU (due to
the fact that we have overridden a valid instruction and want to continue
with exactly that instruction after returning from the interrupt, Another
thing that <STRONG>ALU_INTR</STRONG> does is to clear the <STRONG>I</STRONG> flag in the status register.
 
<P>The interrupt opcodes are implemented as follows:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
 95	                        --
 96	                        -- 0000 0000 0000 0000 - NOP
 97	                        -- 0000 0000 001v vvvv - INTERRUPT
 98	                        --
 99	                        if (I_OPC(5)) = '1' then   -- interrupt
100	                            Q_ALU_OP <= ALU_INTR;
101	                            Q_AMOD <= AMOD_ddSP;
102	                            Q_JADR <= "0000000000" & I_OPC(4 downto 0) & "0";
103	                            Q_PC_OP <= PC_LD_I;
104	                            Q_WE_F <= '1';
105	                            Q_WE_M <= "11";
106	                        end if;
<pre class="filename">
src/opc_deco.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_6_11">7.6.11 Instructions Not Implemented</A></H3>
 
<P>A handful of instructions was not implemented. The reasons for not
implementing them is one of the following:
 
<OL>
  <LI>The instruction is only available in particular devices, typically due
   to extended capabilities of these devices (<STRONG>EICALL</STRONG>, <STRONG>EIJMP</STRONG>, <STRONG>ELPM</STRONG>).
  <LI>The instruction uses capabilities that are somewhat unusual in
   general (<STRONG>BREAK</STRONG>, <STRONG>DES</STRONG>, <STRONG>SLEEP</STRONG>, <STRONG>WDR</STRONG>).
</OL>
<P>These instructions are normally not generated by C/C++ compilers, but
need to be generated by means of #<STRONG>asm</STRONG> directives. At this point the
reader should have learned enough to implement these functions when needed.
 
<H2><A NAME="section_1_7">7.7 Index of all Instructions</A></H2>
 
<P>The following table lists all CPU instructions and a reference
to the chapter where they are (supposed to be) described.
 
<TABLE>
<TR><TD>ADC</TD><TD>7.6.3</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Register
</TD></TR><TR><TD>ADD</TD><TD>7.6.3</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Register
</TD></TR><TR><TD>ADIW</TD><TD>7.6.5</TD><TD>16-bit Dyadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>AND</TD><TD>7.6.3</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Register
</TD></TR><TR><TD>ANDI</TD><TD>7.6.4</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Immediate
</TD></TR><TR><TD>ASR</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>BCLR</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>BLD</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>BRcc</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>BREAK</TD><TD>7.6.11</TD><TD>Instructions Not Implemented
</TD></TR><TR><TD>BSET</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>BST</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>CALL</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>CBI</TD><TD>7.6.6</TD><TD>Bit Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>CBR</TD><TD>-</TD><TD>see ANDI
</TD></TR><TR><TD>CL&lt;flag&gt;</TD><TD>-</TD><TD>see BCLR
</TD></TR><TR><TD>CLR</TD><TD>-</TD><TD>see LDI
</TD></TR><TR><TD>COM</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>CP</TD><TD>7.6.3</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Register
</TD></TR><TR><TD>CPC</TD><TD>7.6.3</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Register
</TD></TR><TR><TD>CPI</TD><TD>7.6.4</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Immediate
</TD></TR><TR><TD>CPSE</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>DEC</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>DES</TD><TD>7.6.11</TD><TD>Instructions Not Implemented
</TD></TR><TR><TD>EICALL</TD><TD>7.6.11</TD><TD>Instructions Not Implemented
</TD></TR><TR><TD>EIJMP</TD><TD>7.6.11</TD><TD>Instructions Not Implemented
</TD></TR><TR><TD>ELPM</TD><TD>7.6.11</TD><TD>Instructions Not Implemented
</TD></TR><TR><TD>EOR</TD><TD>7.6.3</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Register
</TD></TR><TR><TD>FMUL[SU]</TD><TD>7.6.7</TD><TD>Multiplication Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>ICALL</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>IN</TD><TD>7.6.9</TD><TD>Instructions Reading From Memory or I/O
</TD></TR><TR><TD>INC</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>IJMP</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>JMP</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>LDD</TD><TD>7.6.9</TD><TD>Instructions Reading From Memory or I/O
</TD></TR><TR><TD>LDI</TD><TD>7.6.5</TD><TD>16-bit Dyadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>LDS</TD><TD>7.6.9</TD><TD>Instructions Reading From Memory or I/O
</TD></TR><TR><TD>LSL</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>LSR</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>MOV</TD><TD>7.6.3</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Register
</TD></TR><TR><TD>MOVW</TD><TD>7.6.5</TD><TD>16-bit Dyadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>MUL[SU]</TD><TD>7.6.7</TD><TD>Multiplication Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>NEG</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>NOP</TD><TD>7.6.1</TD><TD>The NOP instruction
</TD></TR><TR><TD>NOT</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>OR</TD><TD>7.6.3</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Register
</TD></TR><TR><TD>ORI</TD><TD>7.6.4</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Immediate
</TD></TR><TR><TD>OUT</TD><TD>7.6.8</TD><TD>Instructions Writing To Memory or I/O
</TD></TR><TR><TD>POP</TD><TD>7.6.9</TD><TD>Instructions Reading From Memory or I/O
</TD></TR><TR><TD>PUSH</TD><TD>7.6.8</TD><TD>Instructions Writing To Memory or I/O
</TD></TR><TR><TD>RCALL</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>RET</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>RETI</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>RJMP</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>ROL</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SBC</TD><TD>7.6.3</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Register
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SBCI</TD><TD>7.6.4</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Immediate
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SBI</TD><TD>7.6.6</TD><TD>Bit Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SBIC</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SBIS</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SBIW</TD><TD>7.6.5</TD><TD>16-bit Dyadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SBR</TD><TD>-</TD><TD>see ORI
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SBRC</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SBRS</TD><TD>7.6.10</TD><TD>Jump and Call Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SE&lt;flag&gt;</TD><TD>-</TD><TD>see BSET
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SER</TD><TD>-</TD><TD>see LDI
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SLEEP</TD><TD>7.6.11</TD><TD>Instructions Not Implemented
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SPM</TD><TD>7.6.8</TD><TD>Instructions Writing To Memory or I/O
</TD></TR><TR><TD>STD</TD><TD>7.6.8</TD><TD>Instructions Writing To Memory or I/O
</TD></TR><TR><TD>STS</TD><TD>7.6.8</TD><TD>Instructions Writing To Memory or I/O
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SUB</TD><TD>7.6.3</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Register
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SUBI</TD><TD>7.6.4</TD><TD>8-bit Dyadic Instructions, Register/Immediate
</TD></TR><TR><TD>SWAP</TD><TD>7.6.2</TD><TD>8-bit Monadic Instructions
</TD></TR><TR><TD>WDR</TD><TD>7.6.11</TD><TD>Instructions Not Implemented
</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<P>This concludes the discussion of the CPU. In the next lesson we will
proceed with the input/output unit.
 
<P><hr><BR>
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