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<P><table class="ttop"><th class="tpre"><a href="07_Opcode_Decoder.html">Previous Lesson</a></th><th class="ttop"><a href="toc.html">Table of Content</a></th><th class="tnxt"><a href="09_Toolchain_Setup.html">Next Lesson</a></th></table>
<hr>
 
<H1><A NAME="section_1">8 INPUT/OUTPUT</A></H1>
 
<P>The last piece in the design is the input/output unit. Strictly speaking
it does not belong to the CPU as such, but we discuss it briefly to
see how it connects to the CPU.
 
<H2><A NAME="section_1_1">8.1 Interface to the CPU</A></H2>
 
<P>As we have already seen in the top level design, the I/O unit uses the same
clock as the CPU (which greatly simplifies its design).
 
<P>The interface towards the CPU consist of the following signals:
 
<TABLE>
<TR><TD>ADR_IO</TD><TD>The number of an individual I/O register
</TD></TR><TR><TD>DIN</TD><TD>Data to an I/O register (I/O write)
</TD></TR><TR><TD>RD_IO</TD><TD>Read Strobe
</TD></TR><TR><TD>WR_IO</TD><TD>Write Strobe
</TD></TR><TR><TD>DOUT</TD><TD>Data from an I/O register (I/O read cycle.
</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
<P>These signals are well known from other I/O devices like UARTs,
Ethernet Controllers, and the like.
 
<P>The CPU supports two kinds of accesses to I/O registers: I/O reads
(with the IN or LDS instructions, but also for the skip instructions
SBIC and SBIS), and I/O writes (with the OUT or STS instructions,
but also with the bit instructions CBI and SBI).
 
<P>The skip instructions SBIC and SBIS execute in 2 cycles; in the first
cycle an I/O read is performed while the skip (or not) decision is made
in the second cycle. The reason for this is that the combinational delay
for a single cycle would have been too long.
 
<P>From the I/O unit's perspective, I/O reads and writes are performed
in a single cycle (even if the CPU needs another cycle to complete an
instruction.
 
<P>The I/O unit generates an interrupt vector on its <STRONG>INTVEC</STRONG> output.
The upper bit of the <STRONG>INTVEC</STRONG> output is set if an interrupt is pending.
 
<H2><A NAME="section_1_2">8.2 CLR Signal</A></H2>
 
<P>Some I/O components need a <STRONG>CLR</STRONG> signal to bring them into a defined state.
The <STRONG>CLR</STRONG> signal of the CPU is used for this purpose.
 
<H2><A NAME="section_1_3">8.3 Connection the FPGA Pins</A></H2>
 
<P>The remaining signals into and out of the I/O unit are more or less
directly connected to FPGA pins.
 
<P>The <STRONG>RX</STRONG> input comes from an RS232 receiver/driver chip and is the serial
input for an UART (active low). The TX output (also active low) is the
serial output from that UART and goes back to the RS232 receiver/driver chip:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
 89	                I_RX       => I_RX,
 90	
 91	                Q_TX       => Q_TX,
<pre class="filename">
src/io.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P>The <STRONG>SWITCH</STRONG> input comes from a DIP switch on the board.
The values of the switch can be read from I/O register <STRONG>PINB</STRONG> (0x36).
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
132	            when X"36"  => Q_DOUT <= I_SWITCH;  -- PINB
<pre class="filename">
src/io.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>The 7_<STRONG>SEGMENT</STRONG> output drives the 7 segments of a 7-segment display.
This output can be set from software by writing to the <STRONG>PORTB</STRONG> (0x38)
I/O register. The segments can also be driven by a debug function which
shows the current <STRONG>PC</STRONG> and the current opcode of the CPU.
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
147	                    when X"38"  => Q_7_SEGMENT <= I_DIN(6 downto 0);    -- PORTB
<pre class="filename">
src/io.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>The choice between the debug display and the software controlled
display function is made by the DIP switch setting:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
183	
<pre class="filename">
src/avr_fpga.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<H2><A NAME="section_1_4">8.4 I/O Read</A></H2>
 
<P>I/O read cycles are indicated by the <STRONG>RD_IO</STRONG> signal. If <STRONG>RD_IO</STRONG> is applied,
then the address of the I/O register to be read is provided on the <STRONG>ADR_IO</STRONG>
input and the value of that register is expected on <STRONG>DOUT</STRONG> at the next
<STRONG>CLK</STRONG> edge.
 
<P>This is accomplished by the I/O read process:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
 98	    iord: process(I_ADR_IO, I_SWITCH,
 99	                  U_RX_DATA, U_RX_READY, L_RX_INT_ENABLED,
100	                  U_TX_BUSY, L_TX_INT_ENABLED)
101	    begin
102	        -- addresses for mega8 device (use iom8.h or #define __AVR_ATmega8__).
103	        --
104	        case I_ADR_IO is
105	            when X"2A"  => Q_DOUT <=             -- UCSRB:
106	                               L_RX_INT_ENABLED  -- Rx complete int enabled.
107	                             & L_TX_INT_ENABLED  -- Tx complete int enabled.
108	                             & L_TX_INT_ENABLED  -- Tx empty int enabled.
109	                             & '1'               -- Rx enabled
110	                             & '1'               -- Tx enabled
111	                             & '0'               -- 8 bits/char
112	                             & '0'               -- Rx bit 8
113	                             & '0';              -- Tx bit 8
114	            when X"2B"  => Q_DOUT <=             -- UCSRA:
115	                               U_RX_READY       -- Rx complete
116	                             & not U_TX_BUSY    -- Tx complete
117	                             & not U_TX_BUSY    -- Tx ready
118	                             & '0'              -- frame error
119	                             & '0'              -- data overrun
120	                             & '0'              -- parity error
121	                             & '0'              -- double dpeed
122	                             & '0';             -- multiproc mode
123	            when X"2C"  => Q_DOUT <= U_RX_DATA; -- UDR
124	            when X"40"  => Q_DOUT <=            -- UCSRC
125	                               '1'              -- URSEL
126	                             & '0'              -- asynchronous
127	                             & "00"             -- no parity
128	                             & '1'              -- two stop bits
129	                             & "11"             -- 8 bits/char
130	                             & '0';             -- rising clock edge
131	
132	            when X"36"  => Q_DOUT <= I_SWITCH;  -- PINB
133	            when others => Q_DOUT <= X"AA";
134	        end case;
135	    end process;
<pre class="filename">
src/io.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>I/O registers that are not implemented (i.e almost all) set <STRONG>DOUT</STRONG>
to 0xAA as a debugging aid.
 
<P>The outputs of sub-components (like the UART) are selected in the I/O read
process.
 
<H2><A NAME="section_1_5">8.5 I/O Write</A></H2>
 
<P>I/O write cycles are indicated by the <STRONG>WR_IO</STRONG> signal. If <STRONG>WR_IO</STRONG> is applied,
then the address of the I/O register to be written is provided on the <STRONG>ADR_IO</STRONG>
input and the value to be written is supplied on the DIN input:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
139	    iowr: process(I_CLK)
140	    begin
141	        if (rising_edge(I_CLK)) then
142	            if (I_CLR = '1') then
143	                L_RX_INT_ENABLED  <= '0';
144	                L_TX_INT_ENABLED  <= '0';
145	            elsif (I_WE_IO = '1') then
146	                case I_ADR_IO is
147	                    when X"38"  => Q_7_SEGMENT <= I_DIN(6 downto 0);    -- PORTB
148	                                   L_LEDS <= not L_LEDS;
149	                    when X"40"  =>  -- handled by uart
150	                    when X"41"  =>  -- handled by uart
151	                    when X"43"  => L_RX_INT_ENABLED <= I_DIN(0);
152	                                   L_TX_INT_ENABLED <= I_DIN(1);
153	                    when others =>
154	                end case;
155	            end if;
156	        end if;
157	    end process;
<pre class="filename">
src/io.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>In the I/O read process the outputs of sub-component were multiplexed
into the final output <STRONG>DOUT</STRONG> and hence their register numbers (like 0x2C
for the <STRONG>UDR</STRONG> read register) were visible, In the I/O write process, however, 
the inputs of sub-components (again like 0x2C for the <STRONG>UDR</STRONG> write register)
are not visible in the write process and decoding of the <STRONG>WR</STRONG> (and <STRONG>RD</STRONG> where
needed)  strobes for sub components is done outside of these processes:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
182	    L_WE_UART <= I_WE_IO when (I_ADR_IO = X"2C") else '0'; -- write UART UDR
183	    L_RD_UART <= I_RD_IO when (I_ADR_IO = X"2C") else '0'; -- read  UART UDR
184	
<pre class="filename">
src/io.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<H2><A NAME="section_1_6">8.6 Interrupts</A></H2>
 
<P>Some I/O components raise interrupts, which are coordinated in the
I/O interrupt process:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
161	    ioint: process(I_CLK)
162	    begin
163	        if (rising_edge(I_CLK)) then
164	            if (I_CLR = '1') then
165	                L_INTVEC <= "000000";
166	            else
167	                if (L_RX_INT_ENABLED and U_RX_READY) = '1' then
168	                    if (L_INTVEC(5) = '0') then     -- no interrupt pending
169	                        L_INTVEC <= "101011";       -- _VECTOR(11)
170	                    end if;
171	                elsif (L_TX_INT_ENABLED and not U_TX_BUSY) = '1' then
172	                    if (L_INTVEC(5) = '0') then     -- no interrupt pending
173	                        L_INTVEC <= "101100";       -- _VECTOR(12)
174	                    end if;
175	                else                                -- no interrupt
176	                    L_INTVEC <= "000000"; 
177	                end if;
178	            end if;
179	        end if;
180	    end process;
<pre class="filename">
src/io.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<H2><A NAME="section_1_7">8.7 The UART</A></H2>
 
<P>The UART is an important facility for debugging programs that are more
complex than out <STRONG>hello.c</STRONG>. We use a fixed baud rate of 38400 Baud
and a fixed data format of 8 data bits and 2 stop bits.
Therefore the corresponding bits in the UART control registers of the
original AVR CPU are not implemented. The fixed values are properly
reported, however.
 
<P>The UART consists of 3 independent sub-components: a baud rate generator,
a receiver, and a transmitter.
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_7_1">8.7.1 The UART Baud Rate Generator</A></H3>
 
<P>The baud rate generator is clocked with a frequency of <STRONG>clock_freq</STRONG>
and is supposed to generate a x1 clock of <STRONG>baud_rate</STRONG> for the transmitter
and a x16 clock of 16*<STRONG>baud_rate</STRONG> for the receiver.
 
<P>The x16 clock is generated like this:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
 54	 
 55	    baud16: process(I_CLK)
 56	    begin
 57	        if (rising_edge(I_CLK)) then
 58	            if (I_CLR = '1') then
 59	                L_COUNTER <= X"00000000";
 60	            elsif (L_COUNTER >= LIMIT) then
 61	                L_COUNTER <= L_COUNTER - LIMIT;
 62	            else
 63	                L_COUNTER <= L_COUNTER + BAUD_16;
 64	            end if;
 65	        end if;
 66	    end process;
 67	 
 68	    baud1: process(I_CLK)
<pre class="filename">
src/baudgen.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>We have done a little trick here. Most baud rate generators divide the
input clock by a fixed integer number (like the one shown below for the
x1 clock). That is fine if the input clock is a multiple of the output
clock. More often than not is the CPU clock not a multiple of the the
baud rate. Therefore, if an integer divider is used (like in the original
AVR CPU, where the integer divisor was written into the UBRR I/O register)
then the error in the baud rate cumulates over all bits transmitted. This can
cause transmission errors when many characters are sent back to back.
An integer divider would have set <STRONG>L_COUNTER</STRONG> to 0 after reaching <STRONG>LIMIT</STRONG>,
which would have cause an absolute error of <STRONG>COUNTER</STRONG> - <STRONG>LIMIT</STRONG>. What we
do instead is to subtract <STRONG>LIMIT</STRONG>, which does no discard the error but
makes the next cycle a little shorter instead.
 
<P>Instead of using a fixed baud rate interval of N times the clock interval
(as fixed integer dividers would), we have used a variable baud rate interval;
the length of the interval varies slightly over time, but the total error
remains bounded. The error does not cumulate as for fixed integer
dividers.
 
<P>If you want to make the baud rate programmable, then you can replace the
generic <STRONG>baud_rate</STRONG> by a signal (and the trick would still work).
 
<P>The x1 clock is generated by dividing the x16 clock by 16:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
 70	        if (rising_edge(I_CLK)) then
 71	            if (I_CLR = '1') then
 72	                L_CNT_16 <= "0000";
 73	            elsif (L_CE_16 = '1') then
 74	                L_CNT_16 <= L_CNT_16 + "0001";
 75	            end if;
 76	        end if;
 77	    end process;
 78	
 79	    L_CE_16 <= '1' when (L_COUNTER >= LIMIT) else '0';
 80	    Q_CE_16 <= L_CE_16;
 81	    Q_CE_1 <= L_CE_16 when L_CNT_16 = "1111" else '0';
<pre class="filename">
src/baudgen.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_7_2">8.7.2 The UART Transmitter</A></H3>
 
<P>The UART transmitter is a shift register that is loaded with
the character to be transmitted (prepended with a start bit):
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
 67	                elsif (L_FLAG /= I_FLAG) then       -- new byte
 68	                    Q_TX <= '0';                    -- start bit
 69	                    L_BUF <= I_DATA;                -- data bits
 70	                    L_TODO <= "1001";
 71	                end if;
<pre class="filename">
src/uart_tx.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>The <STRONG>TODO</STRONG> signal holds the number of bits that remain to be shifted out.
The transmitter is clocked with the x1 baud rate:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
 59	            elsif (I_CE_1 = '1') then
 60	                if (L_TODO /= "0000") then          -- transmitting
 61	                    Q_TX <= L_BUF(0);               -- next bit
 62	                    L_BUF     <= '1' & L_BUF(7 downto 1);
 63	                    if (L_TODO = "0001") then
 64	                        L_FLAG <= I_FLAG;
 65	                    end if;
 66	                    L_TODO <= L_TODO - "0001";
 67	                elsif (L_FLAG /= I_FLAG) then       -- new byte
 68	                    Q_TX <= '0';                    -- start bit
 69	                    L_BUF <= I_DATA;                -- data bits
 70	                    L_TODO <= "1001";
 71	                end if;
 72	            end if;
<pre class="filename">
src/uart_tx.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<H3><A NAME="section_1_7_3">8.7.3 The UART Receiver</A></H3>
 
<P>The UART transmitter runs synchronously with the CPU clock; but the UART
receiver does not. We therefore clock the receiver input twice
in order to synchronize it with the CPU clock:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
 56	    process(I_CLK)
 57	    begin
 58	        if (rising_edge(I_CLK)) then  
 59	            if (I_CLR = '1') then
 60	                L_SERIN <= '1';
 61	                L_SER_HOT <= '1';
 62	            else
 63	                L_SERIN   <= I_RX;
 64	                L_SER_HOT <= L_SERIN;
 65	            end if;
 66	        end if;
 67	    end process;
<pre class="filename">
src/uart_rx.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>The key signal in the UART receiver is <STRONG>POSITION</STRONG> which is the current
position within the received character in units if 1/16 bit time. When the
receiver is idle and a start bit is received, then <STRONG>POSITION</STRONG> is reset to
1:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
 86	                if (L_POSITION = X"00") then            -- uart idle
 87	                    L_BUF  <= "1111111111";
 88	                    if (L_SER_HOT = '0')  then          -- start bit received
 89	                        L_POSITION <= X"01";
 90	                    end if;
<pre class="filename">
src/uart_rx.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>At every subsequent edge of the 16x baud rate, <STRONG>POSITION</STRONG> is incremented
and the receiver input (<STRONG>SER_HOT</STRONG>) input is checked at the middle of each
bit (i.e. when <STRONG>POSITION[3:0]</STRONG> = "0111").
If the start bit has disappeared at the middle of the bit, then this is
considered noise on the line rather than a valid start bit:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
 93	                    if (L_POSITION(3 downto 0) = "0111") then       -- 1/2 bit
 94	                        L_BUF <= L_SER_HOT & L_BUF(9 downto 1);     -- sample data
 95	                        --
 96	                        -- validate start bit
 97	                        --
 98	                        if (START_BIT and L_SER_HOT = '1') then     -- 1/2 start bit
 99	                            L_POSITION <= X"00";
100	                        end if;
101	 
102	                        if (STOP_BIT) then                          -- 1/2 stop bit
103	                            Q_DATA <= L_BUF(9 downto 2);
104	                        end if;
<pre class="filename">
src/uart_rx.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>Reception of a byte already finishes at 3/4 of the stop bit. This is to
allow for cumulated baud rate errors of 1/4 bit time (or about 2.5 %
baud rate error for 10 bit (1 start, 8 data, and 1 stop bit) transmissions).
The received data is stored in <STRONG>DATA</STRONG>:
 
<P><br>
 
<pre class="vhdl">
 
105	                    elsif (STOP_POS) then                       -- 3/4 stop bit
106	                        L_FLAG <= L_FLAG xor (L_BUF(9) and not L_BUF(0));
107	                        L_POSITION <= X"00";
<pre class="filename">
src/uart_rx.vhd
</pre></pre>
<P>
 
<P><br>
 
<P>If a greater tolerance against baud rate errors is needed, then one can
decrease <STRONG>STOP_POS</STRONG> a little, but generally it would be safer to use 2
stop bits on the sender side.
 
<P>This finalizes the description of the FPGA. We will proceed with the
design flow in the next lesson.
 
<P><hr><BR>
<table class="ttop"><th class="tpre"><a href="07_Opcode_Decoder.html">Previous Lesson</a></th><th class="ttop"><a href="toc.html">Table of Content</a></th><th class="tnxt"><a href="09_Toolchain_Setup.html">Next Lesson</a></th></table>
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